Abstract
Throughout the course of scientific inquiry, many great men and women have influenced scientific thought. Although their theories don't always agree with one another, their observations are important as they lead to further examination and observations of the natural world. During the great period of history known as the Renaissance, new insights into the universe and stars that surrounded the Earth influenced man's thought as to his position in the World. One such great scientist, an astronomer by the name of Tycho Brahe examined and observed the motions of the planets and stars during the Sixteenth Century. His theories of the Earth's position correspond with those of the religious and scientific ideas of the Renaissance. By studying his life, this paper shows how his method of analysis was influenced by the paradigms of scientific thought during the Renaissance. In addition, this paper shows that Brahe's observations influenced many astronomers and their research at that time and penetrated deeper to influence future astronomers in addition to scientists in other fields.

From the Paper
"In early 1571, Brahe returned to his birth-home where he was called due to his father's illness. After his father died on May 9, 1571, Tycho shared a large inheritance and lordship with his elder brother. He didn't stay long, however, and soon moved to Herrevad where his uncle Steen promised to install a small observatory for Tycho17. On November 11, 1572, in this small observatory, Tycho discovered a new star in Cassiopeia. He continued to observe gradual changes of magnitude of this star during its appearance which lasted sixteen months18. Changing the paradigms of astronomical thought during the Sixteenth century, Tycho proved that it was not a meteor, but instead a real star which was within a region of fixed stars at the end of space."

Tags:Vedel, Copenhagen, Alphonsine, Tables

Abstract
This paper clearly interprets event and actions leading up the German and English reformations of the 16th century. It begins on the topic of Germany and its catalyst feudal systems and religious overlords, and goes on to study the works of martin Luther and his conniving methods and perseverance to proceed with his reformation through his 95-theses to eventually win the hearts of fed up peasants, merchants growing rich off the New World, greedy nobility, and challenge the authority of the Church and Pope. This paper also discusses the reformation of England started by King Henry VIII. It discusses in detail how Henry VIII invented his own hybrid religion, infused it into his own country to build national unity and to suit his own desires, and was excommunicated from the Catholic Church all while making himself the Supreme Head of the Church of England. This paper looks at societal cause and effects such as the printing press which allowed lower classes to become more educated, bible translations to common languages that allowed the lower classes to step past the clergy to speak freely with God, new merchant opportunities in the New World, and political gains of money and land.

From the Paper
"In Sixteenth-century Europe, the material world was becoming increasingly distinct and spiritual ideals more confused, as the printing press spread information and humanist studies inspired ideas of doctrinal difference. The nations were becoming even more conscious of their nationalities, and the faithful were pained about the short comings of society and of the church. From the beginning the impulse to reform the Church had mingled with political currents. The spiritual impulse was dominated by dynastic intrigue, greed, and war, and in the end national politics determined the fate of the Reformation all over Europe. What began in a mood of spiritual piety had its triumph in the rearrangement of secular power."

Tags:cardinal, century, charles, clement, diet, england, germany, henry, imperial, league, luther, martin, pope, press, printing, reformation, religion, religious, sixteenth, swabian, v, viii, wolsley, worms

Abstract
This paper explains that Martin Luther's contributions to the Reformation were many, but it was his acknowledgment of the Church's greed that truly seemed to prompt him to revolution. The paper further explains that one of the most critical acts of the Christian Church Reform of the 16th century was Martin Luther's publication of his Ninety-Five Theses. The paper also examines Luther's background and explains how this background made him take sides against the Church and, instead, side with the ranks of the majority of peasants who were being forced to pay for their sins or else face eternal damnation. Finally, the paper asserts that Luther's eventual condemnation of the Church's practice of selling indulgences forged the very soul of the Reformation and prompted the spread of the revolution throughout Europe.

From the Paper
"On November 10, 1483, Martin Luther was born in Eisleben, a Saxon province of Germany, to a poor family of peasants. Luther's father was a copper miner who supported eight children working in the nearby mines of Mansfield. Luther managed to receive a decent primary and secondary education before enrolling at the University of Erfurt to study law. In 1505, Luther abruptly abandoned his master's degree and enrolled in an Augustinian monastery. Although he was reticent to explain why he had made this decision, the sudden death of a close friend (who was struck down by lightning while they were taking a walk) led him to consider the transitory nature of life. Because of this, Luther began to give himself over to more spiritual commitments."

Tags:moral, disgust, corrupt, politics, catholic, religious, interpretation, disapproval, money, poor

Abstract
A review of Ginzburg's landmark study of a little known heretic burned at the stake in 1599, at odds with much presumed of the Reformation and Italy, the impact of the Renaissance and more liberal discussion of religion. The writer explains that the accused was a simple northern Italian miller with access to a few texts in a day that still presumed an illiterate and non-questioning Roman Catholic peasantry. The writer discusses that Ginzburg introduces his subject as a result of the printing press and the Reformation; one tends to presume that these revolutions were thorough-going but actually affected different groups in different ways. To the very end of the 16th century, in northern Italy, the RCC involved in war against heresy and anything to resemble Protestantism.

From the Paper
"A miller known as Menocchio (1532-1599) from the Italian district of Friuli was twice brought before the Inquisition, in 1584 and 1599, on charges of heresy owing to his peculiar religious beliefs and was eventually burned at the stake. What at first seems yet another tragic story of the Inquisition is explained to mean far more by Ginzburg who first became aware of the case of Menocchio from Inquisition archives in the early 1960s. Domenico Scandella, discussed as Menocchio, produced ..."

Tags:inquisition

Abstract
What was the state of the family in Geneva and France in the 16th century? What laws governed marriage, divorce, and family life in general at that time? In this paper, I plan to address those questions, show how the two locations treated the issues, and show how leaders at the time saw the family and its relationship to society in general.

Abstract
This paper provides an insight into the place of women in society in 16th century Venice. It examines how women fell into one of two categories; the angel or the courtesan (upper class prostitutes) and looks at how the credentials and restraints for each role were usually determined by factors over which the women had no control and yet they defined every aspect of her life. It evaluates why a women would want to be a courtesan and describes the life of Veronica Franco, the best-known of all the Venetian courtesans.

From the Paper
"The Venetian angel was a virgin woman born into a noble family. Her birth gave her not only the respectability that came with her name but also enough wealth to provide a dowry, which guaranteed her a marriage. These women were esteemed because of their nobility but often married women were unhappy because of the extensive limitations placed on them by their husbands and society. As far as education was concerned, Venetian noble women were given a very small one, and what they did receive was at the hands of the convent and so it was ridiculously religious."

Tags:angel, veronica, franco, whore, women

Abstract
Fundamental changes over the course of the long 16th century acknowledged such as: 1) Firearms. 2) Artillery. 3) New Fortifications. 4) Larger armies and new tactics. 5) Naval warfare. Also, the continuities which the Middle Ages brought out, and the concept of an Early Modern 'Military Revolution' discussed.

From the Paper
"Central to reaching a conclusion on the issue of the nature of military change within 16th century Europe is an understanding of when generally fast-paced developmental alterations can accurately be called "fundamental", or in other words, profoundly serious. There can be no doubting the changes: the rise of firearms as the main armament of the foot-soldier, the brief reign of the Pikeman as the king of the battlefield before his relegation to the annals of history, the increasing use of artillery and consequent developments made in the types of fortifications seen in Europe as the "Trace Italienne" ( literally meaning "the fashion of Italy") spread, the continued decrease in the importance of the heavily armored cavalryman, the larger number of men under arms and the new strategic methods introduced, and the crucially important changes seen in the waging of war at sea. "

Tags:armies, europe, firearms, fortifications, military, navies, revolution, warfare

Abstract
This paper examines the nature of the threat that the Ottoman Empire posed to 16th century European states. The author finds that the reality of the menace is accepted during the reign of Suleyman the Magnificent, but the magnitude of the danger is, however, questioned.

From the Paper
"At first glance it is tempting to view the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century as posing a very serious threat indeed to Europe. From the reign of Mehmet II, the achievements of the Sultans mounted, so that in order to understand the menace of the Ottomans one must place due emphasis on the capture of Constantinople by the aforementioned Sultan in 1453. From this point the momentum driving the Ottoman state to becoming a major power seemed to generally increase, through the reigns of Bayezit II, Selim I and culminating in the reign of the "lawgiver" Suleyman, known by the West as the ?Magnificent.? Indeed, it is clear that the threat posed was a real one, and at times serious enough to provoke a sense off panic from European peoples, especially following moments such as when the army of Suleyman laid siege to Vienna for some 3 weeks before withdrawing before the winter of 1529. There were also some impressive victories for the Ottomans: Rhodes, described by Ann Williams as "the thorn in the Sultan's flesh" was taken from the Knights of St. John in 1522, and Belgrade the "gateway to central Europe" captured in the same year as the defeat and slaughter of the army of Louis II of Hungary. Barbarossa, as Lord Admiral of Suleyman's formidable fleet ravaged the coastline of Italy and North Africa and pitched himself against Dorea, and posed a serious distraction for Charles V. However, the reality of the threat the Ottomans posed has been inordinately presented, a process which began in the interpretations made by contemporary 16th century commentators whose knowledge of the east was often incomplete. An examination of Knolles "General History of the Turks" praises aspects of the Ottoman Empire such as its military and political organisation and unified faith whilst revealing the author's lack of acquaintance with it in his portrayal of the Turks as a society primarily militaristic, uncultured, corrupt and unstable. Thus whilst communicating the strength of the Islamic adversary in order to encourage Christian unity in the face of danger, he is loath to credit the Ottomans to highly as a race of foreign ?others.? His prejudices and motivations therefore dictates that his source by treated with caution, and indicates to the historian the dangers of accepting 16th century interpretations of the threat posed by the Ottomans too highly."

Tags:magnificent, ottomans, suleyman, warfare

Abstract
This paper discusses the literary works, "Magdalena and Balthasar" by Ozment and "Mother Courage and her Children" by Brecht. The writer describes the two leading female characters of these two books, Magdalena and Anna, and draws comparisons between their strong personalities.

From the Paper
"It is in Ozment's and Brecht's portrayal of the feminine side of Magdalena and Mother Courage that, prima facie, there is a marked difference. Mother Courage is portrayed as almost callous and uncaring in the manner in which she carries on her business even while she is on the verge of loosing her children or her immunity to the peasants' suffering, to the point where she will not give up her shirts to provided bandages for the wounded (Scene 5). "

Tags:magdalena, balthasar, anna, feminism, ozment, brecht

Abstract
This paper shows how the three great empires of the Ottomans, the Safavid and the Mughals represented growing interdependence with an exchange of people, technology and ideas. The paper examines each of the empires and the history of their rise to power and then looks at the major similarities between the empires. Lastly, the paper looks at the decline of these Islamic empires.

Table of Contents:
Ottoman Empire - Present day Turkey
Suleyman the Magnificifent
Safavid Persia (1500 - 1722)
The Great Mughal Empire (1523-1739)
Similarities between the Three Empires
Decline of Islamic Empires
Conclusion

From the Paper
"The three great empires of the Ottomans, the Safavid and the Mughals represented growing interdependence with an exchange of people, technology and ideas. They set forth a concept of globalization which the Western world later adopted and advanced. Theirs was a supreme legacy of religion, art and nationalism. The three dynasties proved their supremacy to the rest of the world and advanced their military conquests to areas earlier unknown. They were technologically superior in their time, but refused to conform with evolving technological advancement, which led to their downfall."

Tags:dynasty, Ottomans, Safavid, Mughals