Abstract
In recent years Noam Chomsky has become more famous as a political activist and critic of various American governments than he has ever been as a linguist. Be that as it may there was a time when Chomsky was one of the leading linguistic theorists in America and this paper looks at arguably his most important scholarly contribution to that area of inquiry. Specifically this paper explores the strengths and weaknesses of Chomsky's theory of universal grammar, in particular what it reveals and what it does not reveal or rather what it obscures.

Tags:chomsky, universal, language

Abstract
This paper discusses how the creation of the universe has been a controversial topic since its inception and how scientists now accept the 'big bang theory' as the most likely origin of the universe. It also looks at how there are other theories, such as the steady state theory,
that also endeavor to explain our existence. The paper attempts to show that although both theories share certain bases such as the violation of the first law of thermodynamics, the big bang theory is the more probable theory as to how the universe formed.

From the Paper
"The Big Bang is believed to have happened 13.7 billion years ago, marking the beginning of space and time. It suggested that the universe violently exploded into existence, and it continued to expand and cool, condensing and growing in both size and temperature, eventually forming the universe we know today. To this day, the universe continues to expand. The Big Bang theory has quite a bit of evidence backing it up, such as Hubble's Law- suggesting that the universe is constantly expanding and compacting through time. Or the discovery of Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, both radio-astronomers, that 2.735 Kelvin CMB radiation can be found in the universe, a leftover of the Big Bang. Also, the sheer amount of large 'light elements' such as hydrogen and helium in combination to form deuterium, which is believed to be created at the Big Bang. This evidence led scientists to accept the Big Bang theory as the most probable origin of the universe.
"

Tags:perfect cosmological principle First Law of Thermodynamics energy spectrum

Abstract
This paper explains that the wealth of theories and conflicting evidence produced in studies of outer space demonstrate that even seemingly simple facts are only the shells surrounding a much more complex truth about the universe. The paper then relates theories about the moon's radiance and concludes with a discussion of the theories surrounding the formation of the galaxy.

From the Paper
"In this example, we can see that a scientific event, the use of gamma rays, can rub away the edges of common-sense. Other scientific theories face similar challenges; the origins of the universe itself has been hotly debated for many years, centuries even, if we consider how religions have accounted for the beginning of the world. While it is commonly agreed among scientists that the Universe consists of 'dark matter', that unknown substance which can only be detected through gravitational pull, there are a number of uncertainties within this model."

Tags:reflection, gamma radiation, flaw gravity, nonrandom distribution

Abstract
This paper examines the study of general and universal aspects of language with specific reference to Jorgen Habermas' rules for using and understanding language rationally. The goal of universal pragmatics is to identify and reconstruct conditions of possible understanding. The advantages and disadvantages of Habermas' "Universal Pragmatics" are discussed. It is of the writer's opinion that Habermas' emphasis on systematization and organization at times forces linguistic phenomena into pre-established categories, which leaves little room for nuances, details or humanly necessary embellishments.

From the Paper
"This concept when adequately applied extends across the boundaries of culture and language, e.g. two Englishmen would use the same formulations to communicate in English, as would two Frenchmen "in French." In this seminal work, in the book, "Communication and Evolution of Society," Habermas provides a simple construct for ideal communication (Habermas 1979). Throughout "What is Universal Pragmatics?" he maintains that all the complexities of sentence structures and their utterances are successfully communicated if an original intent is adhered to. Habermas maintains, that each form of communication, direct and otherwise, is to reach understanding. Such a pure communication is only possible if it is conducted "in a nutshell" clearly and honestly."

Tags:rational, discourse, freeing, human, beings, dominance, unify, forms, verbal, written, communication, single, fold, rhetoric, scholars

Abstract
The writer gives a background of the Big Bang Theory and explores the theory as an explanation of the beginning of the universe. However, since the 1940s and the introduction of this theory, scientists have raised questions as to the validity of the explanation and continue to research other ways in which the universe might have been created. The paper traces some of this research.

From the Paper
"One such area of research has been the model for the expansion of the universe and so for the Big Bang. One theory offered to explain this is the inflationary model, and over the last two decades what has happened to this model shows some of the ways scientific truth is pursued and fine-tuned. Alan Guth developed the idea in 1979 and wrote it in his notebook. Inflation was the name for the mechanism Guth proposed for igniting cosmic expansion and which might have operated for as little as 10-35 seconds. Still, it would have whipped up all the matter and energy in the universe and laid the seeds for galaxies and galaxy clusters in that brief time, and in that time the universe would have blossomed exponentially from as small as 10-24 centimeters across to perhaps the size of a pumpkin. Michael Turner of the University of Chicago describes inflation as "the most important idea in cosmology since that of the big bang itself.""

Tags:universe, creation, science, astronomy, research

Abstract
This paper answers questions about the universe: the significance of the Hubble Law, the truth and fallacies of the Big Bang theory, how we can look back by looking into space, and whether the universe will expand forever.

From the Paper
"The significance of Hubble's Law is that it allowed the calculation of an estimate of the value of the expansion of the universe. The Hubble Constant is not entirely accurate but is generally accepted to be the rate of expansion, and demonstrates that the dominant motion in the universe can be fit to an equation."

Tags:Big Bang, expanding universe

Abstract
This paper presents a philosophical and scientific discussion about the origins of the universe. Additionally ,it discusses humanity's role in both understanding creation and our place in defining the directions earth's societies take. First, the paper examines what is known to scientists about how the creation of the universe, namely the Big Bang Theory. It also explores the concept of singularities and black holes. These ideas are then applied to a philosophical discourse on humanity, freewill and fate. The paper summarizes by stating that free will is only an illusion.

From the Paper
"After the initial appearance of the singularities--it seems that it inflated, expanded and cooled, going from very, very small and very, very hot, to the size and temperature of our current universe. There were three British astrophysicists, namely, Steven Hawking, George Ellis, and Roger Penrose turned their attention to the Theory of Relativity and its implications regarding our notions of time and in 1968 and 1970, they published papers that they extended Einstein's Theory of General Relativity to include measurements of time and space--according to their calculations, time and space had a finite beginning that corresponded to the origin of matter and energy;" and the singularity didn't appear in space; rather, space began inside of the singularity but prior to the singularity, nothing existed, not space, time, matter, or energy - nothing..."

Tags:singularities, Big Bang theory, Carl Sagan, Stephen Hawking

Abstract
This paper discusses the various theories that were developed beginning at the end of the nineteenth century and leading over time to superstring theory as a way of explaining the fundamental nature of the universe, with necessary earlier ideas including relativity theory, quantum theory, and the idea of higher dimensions over the four usually cited.

From the Paper
"The development of superstring theory required a number of theoretical shifts from the earlier Newtonian model of the universe, which itself had supplanted other ideas about the nature of reality. In this development, the nature of the human relationship to the universe changed because of scientific theories of the time that were offered, that countered the prevailing beliefs, and that seeped down into the culture to be expressed in art, literature, and the popular press in various ways. The central figure in this shift was Albert Einstein, though he was not alone in making discoveries that would alter the prevailing Newtonian, Copernican, and common-sense view of time and space and the immutability of both."

Tags:superstring, theory, developments

Abstract
This paper explains that James Gleick in his book "Chaos: Making a New Science" reports the work of meteorologist and pioneer of the chaos theory, Edward Lorenz, to computerize the forecasting of weather based on physical laws. The author points out that Gleick explains, even though the straight-forward mathematical attempt by Lorenz to find weather averages was a "failure", Lorenz discovered that the phenomenon of climate instability was related to the chaos theory. The paper relates that Lorenz' two non-linear discoveries are (1) that models of chaotic systems have an exquisitely sensitive dependence on initial dependence called the butterfly effect and (2) that even simple systems can show complex, chaotic behavior proving that the "clockwork" universe doesn't exist.

Table of Contents
Gleick's Belief of the Possibility to Forecast Weather
The Butterfly Effect
Nonlinear and Linear Systems
Similar to Predicting the Motions of Planets
Link between Aperiodic Behavior and Unpredictable Behavior
Thermal Convection

From the Paper
"The very act of predicting weather is "fragile" when it comes to computer modeling, even though the data may be "reasonable trustworthy" and the laws of science are "purely physical" (20). But the computer modeling of weather patterns and air movement and temperatures and all the other ingredients that go into the stew, are only good for a day or two; "beyond two or three days the world's best forecasts" are / were speculative, and "beyond six or seven," Gleick writes, "they were worthless." Why were they worthless? "The Butterfly Effect was the reason.""

Tags:butterfly, modeling, universe, nonlinear, thermals

Abstract
This paper discusses what the universe is made up of, its age, how stars are formed and what is the future of our solar system. It discusses the history of the exploration of the universe. The author explains how In this century large telescopes are set up, far away from city lights and traffic to gather the best data for studying the skies. A brief overview of the theories on the origin of the universe is also given. The author concludes that although new theories are constantly being proposed and science is constantly to answer the question "Where did we come from?" , until now, no answer has satisfied everyone.

From the Paper
"Man's fascination with the heavens is as old as recorded history itself. Astronomers from all civilizations medieval to the present times carefully observed the stars and their relative position in the night sky. Even in the medieval times, astronomers universally observed two features: that stars tended to drift westward with each passing night; and, despite this apparent movement, stars were always in a fixed position relative to each other. Anything that man could not explain, ending up fascinating him as did the stars. It has been stated that when man loses his desire to explore the unknown, the human race will have sounded its own death knell."

Tags:universe, astronomy, stars, westward, observations, fixed, position