Abstract
This academic paper examines contemporary linguistic theory, with a focus on grammaticalization in the development of language. This analysis is made for both language form and in acquisition by individuals. The author challenges the idea that language is structural. The paper addresses this issue by evaluating ideas that view grammaticalization as an epiphenomenon of language.

Outline
Abstract
Introduction
Epiphenomenon
Grammaticalization Defined
Grammaticalization as Epiphenominon
Works Cited

From the Paper
"In a sense the epiphenomenon of grammaticalization, as many would claim is the psychological response to the neurologically fixed brain functioning that creates workable mental shortcuts through the utilization of commonly occurring rules that are unique to individual languages and to some extent people. The brain functions to save the individual undue work in forming language, when common rules are oft repeated and in so doing, as the theory goes it leaves the individual capable of the creation of language in an easy almost non-thinking manner. (Anderson, and Lightfoot 162) Yet, when an individual attempts, once these shortcuts have been set, to learn a unique language, a variation of ones own language, say modern English as compared to Middle English or even the English spoken in another country in the present world, he or she is stymied by these shortcuts as they would need to be eradicated or altered (which theory claims is difficult if not impossible to do) to think in and become fluent in another language. (Healy 3)"

Tags:linguistics, grammaticalization, synchronic, variation, diachronic, variation

Abstract
This paper evaluates the empirical validity of Parse's Theory of Human Becoming using meta-synthesis qualitative research. It examines despair and hopelessness in people with the human immunodeficiency virus. The paper relies on findings by J. Kylma to conclude that nurses can use Parse's theory to detect hopelessness and despair in patients with HIV and AIDS.

Outline
Theory Testing
Theory Concepts
Purpose of Study to Determine Empirical Validity
Theory Stated as the Rationale for Research
Theory's Internal Structure Shows Relationship to Study Hypotheses
Study Hypotheses is Deducted from the Assumption
Study Hypotheses are Empirically Tested
Hypotheses Empirically Tested in Appropriate Research Design
Evidence Exist of the Validity and Supports the Theory
Hypotheses Test a Specific Theory
Conclusion

From the Paper
"In applying Silva's criteria to Parse's theory, author Kylma (2005) conducted a meta-synthesis qualitative research study to look at the dynamics of despair and hopelessness in the context of human immunodeficiency virus based on five previous studies. The empirical validity of the theory's assumptions was conducted by reading the articles several times; extracting factors or categories describing the dynamics of hope across the articles; and describing the basic process of living with HIV/AIDS directly. The data collected was compared with extracted factors or categories, and selective coding was applied to the categories. Data triangulation was used to achieve coverage of various aspects of a phenomenon of interest. The theory of human becoming meets the criterion of empirical adequacy for grand theories (Fawcett, 2005)."

Tags:theory testing, empiricism testability despair hopelessness

Abstract
The paper explains that the difference between instructional theory and learning theory is that instructional theory focuses on the elements of the instruction process, while learning theory focuses on the manner in which students learn. The paper discusses however, how instructional and learning theory connect to one another within the classroom because it is instruction that prompts learning and learning styles that determine how instruction is offered to the students. Additionally, the paper discusses how instruction must motivate the learner to transfer the knowledge that is acquired to other parts of learning within the subject area or throughout the curriculum.

From the Paper
"The difference between instructional theory and learning theory is that instructional theory focuses on the elements of the instruction process, while learning theory focuses on the manner in which students learn. Instructional and learning theory, however, do connect to one another within the classroom because it is instruction that prompts learning and learning styles that determine how instruction is offered to the students. Additionally, instruction must motivate the learner to transfer the knowledge that is acquired to other parts of learning within the subject area or throughout the curriculum."

Tags:education, learning, theory

Abstract
Nursing is grounded in theory but nursing theory can only be advance through research which tests the theory. Even when discussing the merits and drawbacks of theory-guided practice versus evidence-based practice, it becomes clear that the two types of practice cannot easily be separated. There are convincing arguments on both sides of this issue. However, nurses normally rely on evidence-based practice when delivering patient care and also when considering a major change. Theory cannot lead to safe nursing practice or to best practice. Evidence-based practice results in efficiency and safety, and it is the only means for deciding on best practice.

From the Paper
Theory-guided Practice vs Evidence-Based Practice Introduction Nursing is grounded in theory but nursing theory can only be advanced through research which tests the theory. Even when discussing the merits and drawbacks of theory-guided practice versus evidence-based practice, it becomes clear that the two types of practice cannot easily be separated. There are convincing arguments on both sides of this issue. However, nurses normally rely on evidence-based practice when delivering patient care and also when considering a major change. Theory cannot lead to safe nursing practice or to best practice. Evidence-based practice results in

Tags:theory, evidence, nursing

Abstract
This paper discusses key concepts of identity theory including social identity theory, self-categorization theory and identity control theory. The paper formulates a new theory of identity that would integrate various theories.

From the Paper
"The following presents the formulation of an identity theory. Key concepts from identity theories such as social identity theory, self-categorization theory and identity control theory are discussed. These concepts are integrated and elaborated on to formulate a new theory of identity. Social identity theory and self-categorization theory postulate that group behaviors are formulated from cognitive representations of the self as it applies to membership in a shared social group. Within this theory, the self and the whole..."

Tags:identity Theory, self-categorization, social

Abstract
The development of Rational Choice Theory in the 20th century arose out of economic theory. Through such thinkers as Homans, Blau and Coleman it has emerged as an important school of thought. The theory focuses upon the rational calculations carried out by individuals guided by self-interest. Post-modernism, another contemporary theory, is in many ways in friction with rational choice theory, for the fundamental capitalist drive espoused by rational choice is seen as nothing but a social construct by the post-modern tradition. Alfred Schutz, a twentieth century phenomenologist, reconciles these two strains of thought to some degree by bringing up the notion of individual perception which encompasses both the social constructs and the drive for self-interest.

Tags:rational, choice, theory

Abstract
This paper discusses Orlando's theory which focuses on the interaction between the nurse and patient, verification, and the use of the nursing process for the sake of positive outcomes or patient improvement. Olson and Hanchett (1997) maintain that their research provides support for Orlando's theory. This paper investigates how exactly these researchers applied the theory. The main concern is to learn if the theory is used in a balanced way. The paper first describes Orlando's theory with emphasis on the four main nursing concepts of person, health, nursing, and environment.

Tags:orlando, theory, care

Abstract
This paper discusses the strain theory and why it is justified including what Robert Agenew added to the theory. Furthermore, it discusses how the interest in strain theory diminished in the 1970 and it proposes an answer as to why people lost interest in the theory. It also discusses how new data analysis supports strain theory.

Tags:strain, theory, renewed

Abstract
This paper examines the general theory of crime set forth by Michael R. Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi. The paper delineates what the theory is and then presents a critique of it using the Social Organizational theory. In the final analysis, the paper concludes that Social Organizational theory offers a fairly trenchant rebuttal of some of the careless assumptions made in Gottfredson and Hirschi's general theory of crime."

From the Paper
"Any critical evaluation of criminal theory is fraught with difficulty insofar as no one explanation satisfactorily explains all of the various reasons why human beings engage in illicit behavior. Be that as it may, the Social Organizational theory comes closer than most to elucidating why human beings often act in the manner they do and it provides a constructive critique of the general theory of crime put forward by respected academics like Gottfredson and Hirschi. The purpose of this paper is two-fold: firstly, the paper will briefly outline what is meant by the "General Theory of Crime" as it most commonly understood. Secondly, the paper will evaluate this theory using the Social Organizational theory that has gained such popularity in recent years."

Tags:crime, casualty, theory

Abstract
This paper discusses behaviorist theory in relation to education. The paper provides a history of behaviorist theory, and further discusses its direct link to the educational process. The paper further examines the uses of behaviorist theory in education, and discusses those who are opposed to this theory in relation to learning in the classroom. The paper draws conclusions based on the research and provides an opinion of the use of behaviorist theory today.

From the Paper
"Behaviorist theory began with Ivan Pavlov, who believed that behavior could be conditioned. Through his experiments with dogs Pavlov discovered that he could ring a bell, bring the dogs food, and when the dogs were conditioned to hearing the bell they would begin to salivate in anticipation of the food, even if it did not exist. John Watson incorporated ideas from Pavlov's research into his own theories. Watson contended that man could only be studied without subjective inference through his behavior. Yet, the most significant name associated with behaviorism is B.F. Skinner. Skinner tested Watson's ideas and determined that in reality "we behave the way we do because this kind of behavior has had certain consequences in the past" (DeMar, n.d.). Skinner called this type of behavior "operant conditioning"."

Tags:behaviorist, theory, education