Comparing the contributions made by Galileo to the exploration of space using his telescope to the contributions made by others using modern telescopes.
2,995 words (approx. 12 pages), 12 sources, 2000, $ 88.95
Abstract A paper on the development of the telescope by Galileo Galilei. The author discusses the many theories borne from Galileo's observations of the heavens.
From the Paper "Centuries ago, a tube and two lenses were the only essentials needed to start the journey into the sky. This instrument, called a telescope, expanded the human vision and brought new light from beyond their world and beyond the already visible sky. It allowed mankind to explore the most distant places imaginable without leaving their backyard. Astronomers have studied the stars for centuries, and, with the aid of a telescope, have discovered new entities that exist in the universe. The first person to use this tool for astronomical purposes was Galileo Galilei. He was the first to turn a telescope up into the stars and make observations. His telescope was crude and not as powerful as telescopes today, but it was effective during his time. Although modern telescopes are far more powerful and extremely effective due to electronics, mirrors, and other enhancements to the design of the telescope, the observations and discoveries made by Galileo and his rudimentary telescope are just as significant as those made by telescopes today and in the future."
Abstract This paper is written about refraction and reflection images in telescopes. Refracting telescopes were the only type of telescope for nearly a hundred years" (Course Notes 36). In the refractor telescope, the objective lens is responsible for magnification. In reflector telescopes, it is the primary mirror that collects great amounts of light from distant objects and creates a brighter image.
Abstract This paper compares the Hubble Space Telescope to its potential successor, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), in terms of their cost effectiveness. The paper looks at the technology of both telescopes to see which will bring continue to bring back the most valuable information, their respective missions, the cost of deploying and maintaining them in orbit, and the cost of repairs, if any, of the telescopes to determine the cost effectiveness of the telescopes.
From the Paper "Ever since its launch in 1990, the Hubble telescope has been orbiting the Earth at 600 kilometers above, bringing valuable information and photos from space. Its history goes back to 1977, when the Congress approved the project funds. However, operations didn't take off until 1981, when the Space Telescope Science Institute was founded, designed especially for the production and research of the Hubble Space Telescope."
Abstract The paper describes the origins of the telescope. It includes a brief history of the magnifying glass and the first spectacles from which the beginnings of the first telescope evolved. The writer discusses Galileo's part in the development of the telescope and explains the changes from the Galilean model through to the reflecting telescope developed in the mid 1700s. In summation, the paper explains that the telescope has led to other important inventions such as the microscope.
From the Paper "The cost of quality glass had come done enough by the end of the thirteenth century and the quality was reasonable enough that it was becoming a real possibility for people to be aided in their eyesight problems as they reached their middle years. It was discovered by spectacle makers that they were able to enhance vision for people by shaping and polishing glass in such a way that the words were enlarged. This is what is known today as the magnifying glass and had become common by the middle of the thirteenth century. From here came the invention of the spectacles and as the glass lenses were made smaller and it was learnt what could be done by altering shapes and polishing the glass in various ways the beginnings of the telescope evolved."
Tags: galileo, Hans, Lipperhey, astrology, astronomy
Abstract This paper discusses the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), the first Earth-orbiting reflecting telescope. The paper examines how the Hubble Space Telescope serves a vital function in increasing our knowledge of the universe. The paper explains that since its launch in 1990, despite several crucial problems, it has revealed a universe full of mysterious bodies, nebula, star systems and galaxies and has expanded the possibilities that humankind is not alone in the universe.
From the Paper "The first scientific idea for a telescope such as the HST came about in 1946 when Lyman Spitzer issued a proposal for a space telescope with a primary mirror between sixteen and fifty feet in diameter. Throughout the 1960's and 1970's, with the ultraviolet observatories OAO-2, OAO 3 and the IUE in the planning stages, the space telescope remained only a dream, due to the lack of technology. Yet Spitzer did not give up, for by the 1970's he had offered another proposal for a space telescope which would be able to provide images of very faint objects as contrasted to ground-based telescopes which suffer from distortion due to the Earth's atmosphere. According to Spitzer, such a telescope would not "supplement our present ideas of the universe we live in, but rather would uncover new phenomena not yet imagined and perhaps would modify profoundly our basic concepts of space and time" (42)."
Abstract This paper provides a history of the Hubble Space Telescope. The paper first notes that the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) was named after the astronomer Edwin Hubble and that it is presently in orbit around the Earth, just outside the planet's atmosphere, providing a great advantage over telescopes that are based on the surface. The paper then looks at how the Hubble was launched in 1990 and has grown to be one of the more valuable astronomical instruments in history. In addition, the paper looks at how breakthroughs in astrophysics have been made with the assistance of the increased abilities allowed with the HST.
Outline:
Introduction
Conception, Design, and Aims
Proposals and Funding
Engineering and Construction
Support from Earth
New Instruments and Servicing Missions
Servicing Missions 1, 2, 3A, and 3B
Scientific Results and Data
Astronomical Impact
Transmission to Earth
Use of the Telescope Scheduling Observations
Observations by Amateur Astronomers
Conclusion
From the Paper "In 1983, a struggle for power between NASA and the entire scientific community led to the establishment of the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI). Run by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA), the STScI is located on the Johns Hopkins University campus in Baltimore, Maryland. The STScI has the primary responsibility of operating the telescope and delivering data to the astronomy community. Engineering support is located nearby, just south of the STScI, in Greenbelt at the GSFC under NASA's management. Since it was launched, the HST operation has been monitored on a twenty-four hour basis, seven days per week by four separate teams of controllers referred to as Hubble's Flight Operations Team (Hubble Space Telescope, 2007)."
This paper discusses the Cornell University infrared telescope project, which will be the world's largest infrared (IR) telescope, to be built at Llano de Chajnantor in the Atacama desert in Chile.
Abstract This paper discusses that there are many unanswered questions about the universe; therefore, there is a need for more powerful and better situated the telescopes as proposed by the Cornell University telescope at the Atacama desert in Chile where atmospheric conditions are superb. This paper explains that the astronomers and engineers at Cornell have devised a new design that they hope will provide more efficiency. The author points out that the new design allows the primary mirror to rotate in azimuth while a rotating Gregorian secondary mirror provides the primary mirror with a virtually unobstructed view of the source.
From the Paper "Telescopes launched into outer space have captured public attention in recent years. The public may wonder at Cornell's choice to build a station on earth when advances seem to be in the sky with its advantage of greater 'height' and clearer view. It is true, of course, that observations at infrared and submillimeter wavelengths--such as the Atacama installation will perform--are far more easily made from space because of the absence of atmospheric interference. But, space stations are terrifically expensive, and the necessary limits on their telescopes' size places a huge constraint on their performance. Another important factor is that, in case of malfunctions, an earthbound telescope presents a great advantage. Thus, the search for optimal conditions on our planet has gone on for many years, and the Atacama Desert has become the astronomers' paradise of choice. The European Southern Observatory is already in operation there, and the United States' National Radio Astronomy Observatory will undoubtedly locate its new Millimeter Array there."
Abstract This paper looks at how, as Galileo first turned his telescope toward the heavens, he was drastically turning mankind away from its long-accepted view that the Aristotelian view of the heavens was correct. It examines the significance of Galileo's early astronomical observations on the Aristotelian universe by examining Aristotle's theory of the cosmos, pertinent background on Galileo, his discoveries, and the effect they had on Aristotle's universe.
Outline
Introduction
Aristotle's Universe
Galileo Leading Up to His Discoveries
Galileo's Observations and their Significance
The Moon
Jupiter
Venus
Other Important Observations
Toward a Heliocentric Model
Conclusion
From the Paper "The next object Galileo turned his attention to was the planet Jupiter. In January of 1610, he saw three small but bright stars in the area of Jupiter that changed positions with time, but never strayed far from Jupiter. After repeated observations, Galileo concluded that there are three stars in the heavens moving about Jupiter. He later discovered a fourth satellite of Jupiter and he named these moons the Medicean stars. These satellites were seen to orbit Jupiter at various distances and speeds. This was the first time that a planet other than Earth was found to have satellites orbiting it."
This paper attempts to explain the evolution of human understanding of the universe, from the initial rationales concerning the earth and its origin until advanced conceptions of the "big bang" and discovery of a black hole.
2,971 words (approx. 11.9 pages), 35 sources, 1998, $ 87.95
From the Paper "Throughout time, man has looked to the skies and wondered what was beyond the clouds. For the most part, primitive man solved the quandary of universal creation through myths, legends and stories. The Egyptians provided the earliest and primitive conjectures of the universe. In early Greece, Ptolemy made observations and transcribed the positions of stars, eventually documenting his findings in his book, Almagest. During the Renaissance and Enlightenment, scientists and astronomers began to study the solar system and universe. Beginning with Earth's solar system and slowly expanding to the milky way galaxy, mankind's understanding of the universe slowly expanded and advanced. Galileo's invention of the telescope was the monumentous innovation of the 17th century. It allowed for the examination and probing of the universe without traveling throughout it. Modern discoveries in science and astronomy conflicted with religion in dealing with the creation of the universe. As time passed, the comprehension of the universe evolved. "
Abstract This paper looks at the numerous contributions that Galileo made in the areas of mathematics, physics, and astronomy and shows how he symbolizes the struggle against the Catholic Church and the freedom of scientific inquiry during the Renaissance period.
From the Paper "As a young man, Galileo showed very little interest in astronomy and focused more on mathematics and physics. Beginning in 1595, however, he became interested in the theory made by Copernicus in the early 1500s. Copernicus's theory consisted of a heliocentric model where the Earth revolves around the sun. This was contrary to the assumptions made by Aristotle and Ptolemy where the heavenly bodies, including the sun, revolved around a stationary Earth.
In July 1609, a most extraordinary event occurred which startled the world and changed the life of Galileo. A man in the Netherlands by the name of Hans Lippershey, who was an eyeglass spectacles maker, had invented a device that magnified distant objects immensely."
Abstract A detailed survey of the planets. The author looks at the space age and how knowledge has developed over time. Includes a detailed discussion of each era from 1957 when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik to the present.
From the Paper "Think of how exciting it must have been to live in the days when the telescope was first turned to the heavens. Every part of the sky offered a new surprise. The planets were transformed from specs of light to globes with unique characteristics. Could there be a more thrilling time of planetary discovery than those days of Galileo and the first telescopes? Yes, we live in such a time. How could the glimpses those early telescopes gave compare in richness to the dozens upon dozens of photographs and storehouses full of other data collected in the past few decades? Thanks to the spacecraft, we have finally started to know the planets as real places, both like and unlike Earth."
Abstract This is a paper on planetary discovery. The author traces the short history of manned and unmanned trips to the moon, Mars, Venus, Jupiter etc. All the Apollo journeys are discussed, along with Viking and Space Shuttle trips.
From the Paper "Think of how exciting it must have been to live in the days when the telescope was first turned to the heavens. Every part of the sky offered a new surprise. The planets were transformed from speaks of light to globes with unique characteristics. Could there be a more thrilling time of planetary discovery than those days of Galileo and the first telescopes? Yes, we live in such a time. How could the glimpses those early telescopes gave compare in richness to the dozens upon dozens of photographs and storehouses full of other data collected in the past few decades? Thanks to the spacecraft, we have finally started to know the planets as real places, both like and unlike Earth."
Abstract This paper explains why Galileo Galilei, one of the most well-known astronomers and mathematicians, was one of the most controversial people of his time.
From the Paper " In the years to follow Galileo contributed much to the mathematic and scientific field. In 1609, Galileo was able to observe a Dutch mans invention, which Galileo would much be remembered for. This was the first telescope. Using his great technical and mathematical skill Galileo improved the telescope greatly. He also began to look at the sky with it. He wrote down his observations in a book he called Message From the Stars. Galileo also did much on free fall and even published some books on the subject. In his later years Galileo studied motion and strength of objects. He wrote a book on this called Discoveries on Two New Sciences. The book had to be smuggled out of Italy because at this time Galileo was forbid by law to publish any more books. "
Abstract This paper details how Galileo Galilei affected history by discovering the potential of the telescope, pioneering new approaches to science, and challenging the authority of the Catholic Church.
From the Paper "Galileo Galilei was a mathematician, an astronomer, and a physicist who made several significant contributions to modern scientific thought. During his life, he made many scientific discoveries, often in contradiction with the centuries-old ideas of the Greek philosopher Aristotle. These contradictions led to great conflict with the Catholic Church; however, he emerged as a symbol to others who oppose unyielding authority and champion scientific progress. As James Reston's biography Galileo makes clear, Galileo is a historical figure who affected history by discovering the potential of the telescope, pioneering new approaches to science, and challenging the authority of the Catholic Church."
