Abstract This paper examines the problems associated with researcher bias when the history of religion is studied at an academic level. The author further explores how religion is studied within a Western academic paradigm and its implications for understanding non-Western cultures. Islam is used as an example of a subject that may require a new approach. The author concludes that minimizing bias therefore remains a core challenge for the historian of religion. To achieve this, historians must exercise responsible scholarship by clearly defining terms at the outset of their research, adopting a lexicon and semantic framework relevant for the study, and by acknowledging and expressing the ideological standpoint from which the research is conducted.
From the Paper "Tapper (1995) points out that the anthropology of Islam presumes a Western perspective, rooted in an "application of the methods of cultural/social anthropology to the study of Islam as a world religion," (p. 185). Breaking down this statement makes apparent the challenges to the historian of religion. The history of religion or of any particular religion, like the anthropology of religion, attempts to be scientific in its approach in order to be accepted into the canon of Western academic literature. Thus, the "application of the methods of cultural/social anthropology" infers the application of accepted methodologies, which may include participant/observation in the field of anthropology as Tapper (1995) points out. Historians' methods differ, favoring instead the examination of artifacts or explication of validated primary source texts. Already the historian of religion has a problem, for what constitutes an "artifact" or a "primary source" depends on several intervening factors. Interpretation of historical texts can be especially problematic because not all texts can or should be taken literally; many of the allegories or metaphors within them have lost their original meaning over time; and linguistic or cultural barriers may prevent a complete understanding of the value, import, or impact of those texts on the people under scrutiny. Varisco's (1995) exploration of the tribal lineage of Muhammad emphasizes the importance of adopting the frame of reference most conducive to unbiased understanding. The term "tribe" connotes different things for Muslim and non-Muslim people, and the only way to effectively understand Muslim social structure is to grapple with the Muslim meaning of tribe."
Abstract The paper examines Thompson's work and writing, including those for which he was criticized. Thompson spent many years studying the Mayan hieroglyphic writing system. The paper studies Thompson's work in respect to its value as an educational tool on the Mayan history, religion and culture.
From the Paper " J. Eric Thompson helped to shape the existing vision of the ancient Maya. In his book, "Maya History and Religion," Thompson pulled together and combined all the different elements from the researchers that had come before him. He studied the contemporary Maya, their folklore, religion, languages, and lifestyle. To this modern study, Thompson added the information he gleaned from the records of the colonial period, the archeological artifacts that had been previously uncovered, and the artifacts of sites he personally excavated. With this combined information he was able to extend and further clarify the Maya culture. Thompson then took this contemporary view and transposed it back in time to create a picture of the Classic and Post-Classic Maya civilization..."
Tags: ancient, hieroglyphic, popol, thompson, mayan, religion, history
Abstract The paper examines religion in the scientific world and explores the implications of reductionism. The paper explains that ,according to Goodenough, the primary difference between reductionism and rational analysis is that rational analysis is indifferent to the metaphysical status of the object of which the details are a part, while reductionism features radical skepticism regarding the object of study. The paper concludes that, essentially, reductionism seeks to establish the ultimate meaning of the object being studied by examining its composition and the relationship between its component parts.
From the Paper "In describing what Goodenough and Kaplan mean by reductionism, it must be noted first of all that is reductionism is similar to rational analysis, which attempts to understand an aspect or quality of nature through a precise and exhaustive detailing of its particulars and the constituent elements. According to Goodenough (2000) the primary difference between reductionism and rational analysis is that rational analysis is indifferent to the metaphysical status of the object of which the details are a part, while reductionism features radical skepticism regarding the object of study. Essentially, reductionism seeks to establish the ultimate meaning of the object being studied by examining its composition and the relationship between its component parts."
Abstract In this essay, the writer examines the role of religion and nationalism in the origin and development of the India-Pakistan and Arab-Israeli conflicts. The writer discusses religion and nationalism as exacerbating factors in the conflicts. The writer also considers the prospect that religion and nationalism will continue to be factors in wars in the future.
From the Paper "States go to war for a variety of reasons, but two that have proven particularly effective in generating mass mobilization are religion and nationalism. Unlike other reasons for war, such as control of a trade route or more broadly even economic prosperity, these reasons are capable of motivating large numbers of people on a deeply emotional level even when they do not stand to share in any material gains from victory. By the same token however, once brought into ... "
Tags:religion, nationalism, islam, hinduism, judaism, india, pakistan, israel, arabs, palestinians
Abstract This paper encompasses two papers that explore the origins of religion and religious practices. The first paper provides a very general overview. The second paper references sources that suggest how religion is created from historical artifacts and practices, as well as the practices originating from faith. The implication is that religion can and should be studied in this context for better understanding.
From the Paper "We feel as though religion should be taken on faith, for it is both inappropriate and impossible to quantify God. However, the emergence of science as promoting new modes of understanding in the Eighteenth Century - and in many respects prior to this era - suggests that there are better ways of understanding the world around us. The religious artifacts and written evidence left in books and in the historical sanctuaries indicate that religions all have pasts, and that many of the initial practices and behaviors in a given religion can be attributed to specific origins. It is through knowing such origins that we better understand how and why our existing religions have come to pass, as well as the purpose they serve in modern society. In the study of historical evidence and markers in text, we learn that religion is highly psychological."
This essay examines the weak connection between religion and terror by studying several incidences when people carried out terrorism in the name of their God.
Abstract This paper analyzes the phenomenon of people that commit crimes in the name of their religion while examining Jonathan R. White's book "Religion and Terror". It details religious terrorism and gives several examples from history that can be labeled as these. It clearly defines terrorism and its meaning and recalls several terrorists whom are not terrorists by his definition. It focuses on the terrorist acts of Muslim fundamentalists and compares them to Christian secular acts.
From the Paper "In the histories of religious traditions, from biblical wars to crusading ventures and great acts of martyrdom, violence has always shown its presence. An old maxim seems to plague the fight against terrorism: one person's terrorist is simply another's freedom fighter. A major question arose in the wake of the thesis advanced by Samuel Huntington that 'the great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural' - a 'Clash of Civilizations' of differing norms and values. Also, the ever-present terrorist violence in the Middle East has not failed to ponder and disturb our thinking of why men would resort to such extremities of violence. Are there shared norms that transcend religion, culture, even civilizations that can and should provide a guide for distinguishing between terrorism and other acts of war or conflict? Robert Kennedy, in his article addresses one aspect of the overall question of shared norms. His purpose is to examine the norms established in both Western Christian and secular and Islamic 'just war' traditions and their modern derivatives in terms of their utility as a guide for differentiating between terrorism and what might otherwise simply be called irregular warfare. The article concludes that, despite the existence of 'fundamentalist' interpretations on all sides, generally shared norms indeed do exist among Western Christian and secular and Islamic 'just war' traditions. The article also concludes that a number of factors contribute to differences of perspective between and among Muslims and members of many western societies. "
Abstract In this article, the writer examines the views of Sigmund Freud. The writer points out that throughout his long life and career in psychology, Freud studied mythology, religion, spirituality and the basis of morality, pondered their origins, and formulated theories regarding their appeal and influence on individuals and society. In this article, the writer discusses Freud's strong opinions regarding atheism and looks at how he regards religion.
From the Paper "Sigmund Freud is considered one of the stronger exponents of atheism in the twentieth-century, and general described religion as a form of psychological projection through which an illusion is foisted upon the world of the living. Throughout his long life and career in psychology, he studied mythology, religion, spirituality, and the basis of morality, pondered their origins, and formulated theories regarding their appeal and influence on individuals and society. Biographers of Freud have concluded that he, "must have been impressed by the universal nature of religious phenomena, being on the interface between the biological and social realms". "
Abstract This paper discusses early religion, particularly in Mesopotamia, one of the earliest known cities. The author studies the religious beliefs of the Mesopotamians who had several gods and goddesses and a large number of spirits and demons. The author also compares how the Mesopotamians, though an ancient race, would house their Gods, to how the Christians did by building churches. The basic principal in which the Mesopotamian religion was based on is also explained in the paper as well as how this helped the people with their survival for many years.
From the Paper "It is important to note that although the Mesopotamians were ancient people, who believed in their own Gods, Gods that were closely linked to nature and the benefits that they derived from nature, they believed in creating beautiful structures or temples within which they would house their Gods, in much the same way as Christians did, by building Churches to house their God, Jesus Christ. As a matter of fact, experts felt hat there seems to be a remarkable similarity in the religious architectural forms of the fourth century BC, and the earlier Churches of the so called 'pre-Islamic era'."
Tags: ancient civilization, religion, gods and goddesses, spirits and demons
Abstract This paper is a research paper about the Constitutional guarantee of separation between church and state. The paper uses the Bill of Rights, as well as other studies, to show the effects and impact of mixing religion in public schools.
Abstract This paper examines how the path to combat inter-religious conflict has been the mission of Gandhi's objective mission in the world. This study explores the critical apparatus between modern scholars that often agree, but also disagree in how Gandhi actually viewed religious divisions within politics or without. The paper explains, however, that by understanding the ethical and moral basis for Gandhi's activity to bring religions into a unified world, one can understand why he sought to realize a harmonious world that could live without unnecessary violence and destruction to differing ideological doctrines in theology.
From the Paper "In this religious study, the inter-religious conflict that existed within Gandhi's time can be analyzed in realizing how religion can divide a society or culture. In this view, one can realize the various barriers that are created that are not really present in relation to how ethics and morals work within the philosophy of Gandhi's teachings. In essence, although there are certain problems of doctrine and belief systems between religions, the modern day view of Gandhi's influence in breaking down religious barriers dissolves inter-religious conflict. These are the positive ways and means in which Gandhi represents a tolerant and inter-religious unity, which can be practiced in today's modern world. The basis for inter-religious conflict has been critically evaluated from the standpoint of a separation of politics with religion."
Abstract This paper attempts to assess why Rachel, a fifteen year-old Jewish girl, attempted suicide, and what can be done to improve her quality of life. The paper prevents the fictional character of Rachel as a teenager who was admitted to a psychiatric ward after taking 10 Panadol tablets. Rachel's sister brought her in, disclosing that Rachel had had a fight with her father for dating the 18 year-old son of a Kosovan asylum seeker. The paper attempts to explicate the three primary issues impeding Rachel from gaining full confidence in her life: (1) infatuation, (2) inter-religion dating and (3) depression. The paper concludes by extrapolating lessons from Rachel's life to the experience of adolescence in general.
From the Paper "Human love and close relationships which involve social behaviors include issues at several levels and which are spread across through the subjective and the objective cultures. The processes involved in the development, maintenance, and/or dismissal of love are greatly influenced by several internal and external factors. (Tzeng, 1993, p. 83) It now needs to be understood as to whether romantic love is eternal, or would it fade as time passes? If love is to fade off, we need to understand as what are the consequences? For most people, these would look to be strange questions. Definitely, the songs, poems, novels, and films being witnessed by our society have shown love as the ultimate value in life and they can be energetic, overwhelming and perfectly blissful. Love is being believed by our younger generation as which makes the world progress; there is absolutely nothing which is not possible for lovers, love has no limitations and a life without having love is not a life at all and that exists forever. (De Munck, 1998, p. 17) But this is not the true face of love. Love is sometimes sad, and it can be as sad as death which is a supreme and mortal pain. It would lead to endless miseries for those involved and also for the near ones of the lovers. As time passes love tends to show its negative side and it leads our younger generation to depression and to commit suicide when they are unable to face its consequences. (Toner, 2003, p.39)"
Abstract This paper is a survey of sources in Jewish law from the earliest to the most modern on the topic of secular studies. Throughout the generations, there has been a serious legal debate as to the permissibility of the study of secular knowledge within the confines of traditional Jewish law (halakhah). The paper makes no judgment on either side. It is only a presentation of the sources and an analysis of the various opposing viewpoints on the issue. Earliest sources are from the Bible, latest sources from the 20th century.
From the Paper "For the modern Jew, the most engaging problem within Jewish law is, ironically, the question of what is not Jewish law, namely, secular knowledge and philosophy. The study of subjects such as mathematics, the sciences, the liberal arts, and the various trades and vocations, is indeed a challenging notion, given the understanding that the Torah (Old Testament) is the blueprint for all human behavior, and that its study is equal in importance and reward to all of the other precepts combined.[1] The Torah, in fact, seems to issue a formal warning against secular studies: "This book of law [Torah] shall not depart out of your mouth; but you shall meditate therein day and night"-the study of Torah must be constant, leaving no time for other intellectual pursuits."
Abstract This paper develops a case study that applies family therapy theory to a special needs problem, in this case Alzheimer's disease. First, the extent of the family problem is discussed, including demographics such as race, ethnicity, class, gender, sexual orientation, illness, economics, environment, religion, and social supports. Next, one theoretical model is chosen for this case and the reasons for this choice are explained. A definition of this theory is then offered, followed by a discussion and application of interviewing and counseling skills. Three specific uses for this theory are then applied and, finally, the impact of relevant health-care policy is examined.
From the Paper "Alzheimer's disease is perhaps one of the most difficult chronic illnesses to cope with, not only for the individual suffering from the malady, but for family and loved ones, as well. This occurs mainly because the family has a sense that they have lost their loved one even before that person has died, due to the dementia that the disease brings. In a journal article for Family and Community Health, Clark and Standard (1996) note that "Although it is commonly believed that US society typically abandons its elders to extended care facilities, studies show that it is the family that usually bears primary responsibility for care of chronically ill and dependent elders." This is precisely the type of case on which this paper will focus. The family in question is providing care for their loved one, but the burden and stress are becoming overbearing."
Abstract The author explains how recent world events have highlighted the plight of women in several given societies with many atrocities still occurring against women in the name of religion. He contends that while some religions embrace the contributions of women, others completely ignore or forbid it. In some religions, women are encouraged to participate fully in the activities of the church, in others; women are not even allowed to enter places of worship. In addition, the social treatment of women differs according to the religion embraced by each particular society. While women are regarded as equals to men within some religious cultures, other cultures view the woman as little more than a slave and piece of property. To depict the realities of the statements made above, two religions and the way each regards and treats women are covered in this paper: Hinduism and Sikhism. Toward this end, the basic tenants and beliefs of each of these religions is provided.
From the Paper "The Hindu religion has developed over the last four thousand years, and lacks the organizational hierarchy found in many other religions. Unlike Western religions, Hinduism is a mixture of many beliefs and aspects, including that of magic, nature worship, animal veneration, and an unlimited number of deities and idols. In other words, the Hindu's find religion in almost everything, such as places like the Himalayan where they believe the God's live. The basic tenants of the religion hold that, "the multiplicity of gods and goddesses in its pantheon as manifestations of the one divine spirit, Braham" (Smart 70). According to Hindu?s, Braham is the "ultimate level of reality, a philosophical absolute, serenely blissful, beyond all ethical or metaphysical limitations" (Kussman and Jain, 83). In Hinduism, the basic view of God is one of "infinite being, infinite consciousness and infinite bliss" (83). Another important aspect of the Hindu religion is that of rituals. In Hinduism, these rituals include such activities as the lighting of incense, bathing, eating, and marriage ceremonies, all of which are meant to show that God is in everything (Smart 71)"
Abstract In this article, the writer discusses how the mystery religions influenced the religion of Christianity. The writer explores a number of the ancient mystery religions. The secret rituals of these mystery religions as well as their similarities are discussed. Most importantly, the writer examines the impact of these religions on Christianity and discusses why they are no longer practiced.
From the Paper "By the end of the first century small communities of Christians could be found in many of places in the Greco-Roman world. According to Jeffrey Sheler, writing for U.S. News World Report as the movement expanded during the second and third centuries, it proved to be anything but simple to deliver a consistent message. The early Christian church was torn by persecution and internal division as Christians struggled to understand and apply the meaning of Jesus' life, death and resurrection in the religious ... "
Tags: mystery religions and their impact on Christianity, historical context, Isis
