Abstract
The paper relates that one of man's greatest fears is that of the power of numbers. The paper demonstrates how statistics are used to misrepresent, under-represent or over-represent an event, occurrence, situation or phenomenon. The paper defines statistics as a set of numeric values obtained by way of a measurement process. This process can be either one of observation or direct testing. The paper reveals that the most widely used means whereby researchers lie is with statistics, usually for increased profits and sensationalism. The paper illustrates how companies can use a self-selecting population for survey results, or they use obscure definitions and data sets that mislead consumers.

From the Paper
"For most people numbers are nothing more than a hodgepodge of digits that are bewildering and oftentimes meaningless. As a result individuals often prefer to judge events, occurrences, phenomena, and situations from a traditionalist point of view wherein reason, conclusion, and inferences are made on the basis of past experiences rather than on best practices policies. Justification for historical acceptance is usually based on a fear of numbers and a lack of willingness to extract meaningful information from them. For those accepting of the alternatives, statistical tools have been devised wherein it is possible to extract meaningful information from data and interpret whatever the data holds as its' secret."

Tags:digits, data, untruth, survey

Abstract
This paper explains that Darrell Huff in his text "How to Lie with Statistics" relates that, because there is a fear of numbers in our culture and a great deal of misunderstanding or incomprehension about what number mean, combined with a paradoxical impulse to trust science as objective, people are apt to become confused by the use of numbers, regardless of what the numbers actually say. The author points out that the math is usually computed correctly but is rhetorically twisted and used to suggest an erroneous conclusion, hence Huff's rightful characterization of such misleading evidence as a lie. The paper stresses that perhaps the most relevant information in the book for today's reader pertains to interpreting potentially divisive statistics such as crime rates in cities.

From the Paper
"Such an example is not unlike the spurious study cited by Huff that smokers have significantly lower grades in college than nonsmokers. Ergo, said the researcher, smokers wishing to improve their grades should quit smoking! Of course, a statistical study showing that there's a "significant" relation between smoking and low grades doesn't show that smoking is the cause of lower grades -- perhaps educational failure draws people to smoke, suggests Huff, or more seriously, demographic factors such as poorer individual's tendency to smoke as a culturally accepted coping mechanism or to have come from less well-funded and rigorous school districts might also come into play."

Tags:fear, misunderstanding, trust, erroneous, divisive

From the Paper
"The purpose of this research is to examine the nonfiction book How to Lie with Statistics by Darrell Huff. The plan of the research will be to set forth the main ideas of the book as a chapter-by-chapter summary of the important ideas, including examples of misleading uses of statistics of the type presented.

The Sample with the Built-In Bias. Statistical measurement begins with assembling a credible sample of respondents on which to base conclusions that can be generalized from the sample to the population. There are two factors to consider: whether the respondents are truly representative of what is being measured, and whether the respondents tell the truth when they are asked questions. Both features of a sample may contribute to bias in the reporting of information. Huff cites a survey in which voters in 1936 were asked over the phone predict election ..."

Abstract
This paper discusses statistical analysis as a dynamic form of study that evolves over time to meet developing needs and to exploit developing capabilities and technologies. The author points out that statistical analysis is the process through which data becomes knowledge and is a science to assist one in making decisions under conditions of uncertainty. The paper relates that the most appropriate logic bases for the discipline of statistical analysis in the contemporary period are rational, quantitative, positivist and causality.

Table of Contents
Introduction: Reflections on Statistics
Reviewing Statistical Analysis
Defining Statistical Analysis
Alternative Logic Bases for Statistical Analysis
Rational Model versus Naturalistic Model.
Quantitative Model versus Qualitative Model.
Positivist Model versus Normative Model.
Causality Model versus Plausibility Model
Exploratory Model versus Confirmatory Model.
Randomization Model.
Conclusion: Reviewing Statistical Analysis.
Examining the Classical Model of Statistical Analysis
Descriptive Statistical Analysis
Exploratory Statistical Analysis
Inferential Statistical Analysis
Probability Theory and Classical Statistical Analysis
Conclusion: Classical Statistical Analysis

From the Paper
"Descriptive statistical analysis describes the performance or activity of one group or class, without attempting to generalize about other groups or classes. Classification, description, and measurement are activities applicable to variables associated with social research. The classification of variables is based on an assumption that social units are comparable within the context of specific definitional criteria. A social researcher attempts to control variation through the classification of variables. The description of variables is an effort to assign some degree of uniqueness to each variable, in order to provide a basis for the establishment of relationships among variables. The measurement of the extent of the uniqueness of variables generates the quantitative indicators of the strength of the relationships between variables. The process of classification, description, and measurement facilitates the development of causal explanations for both regularities and variations in empirical phenomena. Comparisons are made according to the degree of differentiation of structure in data in relation to a common and less differentiated point of origin. Such comparability is dependent upon both the classification of the social unit and the dimension of that social unit that is being measured. The dimension is the variable being measured."

Tags:rational, quantitative, positivist, causality, uncertainty

Abstract
The paper looks at several aspects of the history of the ancient and famed Forbidden City which lies in the Chinese city of Beijing. This includes its location within the city, when, why and how it was built, the reason for its curious name and who its former inhabitants were. The paper also discusses what its purpose is, both in all of those yesterdays long past and today.

From the Paper
"China's Forbidden City. Centered firmly in the most important metropolis of the planet's most populous nation, sits one of the wonders of modern or ancient architecture. Sprawling 720,000 square meters, entailing 800 buildings and 9,999 rooms ("Forbidden City" 1), China's famed Forbidden City is a wonder to behold for its own residents and tourists, alike. The former imperial palace grounds stand as a memory of dynasties past, of a nation's ongoing work ethic and ingenious planning and of the triumph of human ingenuity."

Tags:china, history, forbiddencity

Abstract
In this article, the writer discusses that the book "Freakonomics" is a book about the exploration and reinterpretation of economics and statistical analysis. The writer maintains that the strength of the book is that it lacks all of the ingredients of academia, but rather takes on the topics of social maladies and everyday problems through the perspective of economics. The writer points out that Levitt, is entertaining in his application of his brand of economic theory to everyday problems and notes that this is what has made this book a truly interesting read. The writer concludes that the main weakness of "Freakonomics" lies in its rather un-revolutionary content and claims that the main reason to read this book is to receive a very interesting and entertaining introduction to the field of economics and the scientific process, rather than a revolutionary look into new studies of economics.

From the Paper
"Thus the economic incentive to perform actions can be interpreted through several dimensions and perspectives. Levitt offers several examples to illustrate the meaning of an incentive driven individual. He argues that both inner city school teachers in Chicago and Sumo wrestlers in Japan are driven by incentives. The school teacher however is driven by social and moral incentives, while the sumo wrestler may be driven far more by economic ones. The basic fact lies in that each individual performs actions to the minimizing of the bad and maximizing of the good. This is the basic fundamental theorem of economics. It is because of differing incentives that cheating, lying, stealing and unethical behavior in general occurs. Levitt argues that no one perceives themselves as evil or bad, but rather that they place greater emphasis on certain incentives such as monetary ones.
The strength of this chapter is that provides a strong fundamental basis on which modern economics lies. The greatest concepts behind economics lie in the concept of economic equilibrium, the state in which balance is achieved."

Tags:theory, statistical, economic, concepts

Abstract
This paper discusses the inherent value of a college education and emphasizes the various advantages that lie behind attaining college education and, thus, a college degree. It also explains how education affects the life of an individual, both professionally and domestically. It presents various statistics regarding college education, including information about some of the programs being implemented by governments to reduce the cost of college.

From the Paper
"Many young students attend college for the purpose of making a career in one of the professions. It is these students who are trying to be useful members of the society in which they live. College education offers young scholars a chance to attain specialized training in the courses, which they would need in their respective career making. It also encourages disinterested researches leading to inventions and discoveries beneficial to mankind. A very important function of college education is to encourage research."

Tags:student, research, college, employment, government

Abstract
This essay provides many logical arguments against the theory of global warming and the many misconceptions that people on the subject. It exposes the false use of statistics and gives other true statistics. The paper exposes many lies of several big media companies such as National Geographic and Science Daily. It concludes by explaining how reducing so-called greenhouse gas emissions would not be beneficial economically as well as socially.

From the Paper
"Many people are worried about the so-called rising temperatures at home as well as in countries such as Greenland. People believe that this will usher in the end of New York City and other major cities which are at or below sea level. This would be if the global average temperature rises by 2 degrees Fahrenheit (Clark, 2003). What if the temperatures in places like Greenland and Russia are actually dropping? What if this is the case around the world? What then should we call it, global cooling? Wouldn't that mean that global warming is inaccurate?"

Tags:accord, conference, global, kyoto, melting, usa

Abstract
This paper states that, although inequality and high levels of income disparity represent major challenges confronting economists and leaders in many parts of the world, the problem is particularly severe in the Latin American countries. The author believes that the root of this phenomenon lies in the region's colonial history and the exploitation of the indigenous population as slave labor for agriculture and tapping the mines. The paper concludes that these stubborn patterns of inequality can be overcome if determined efforts are made to open political and social policies to all and to provide access by the poorer sections to social services. Footnotes.

Table of Contents
Income Disparities in Latin America
Measuring Inequality: Some Recent Studies
Latin America: How Unequal?
Income Disparity in Latin America: Getting Worse?
Is Poverty and Income Disparity Related?
Historical Roots of Inequality in Latin America
Comparison with Colonization of North America
Persisting Patterns of Inequality
Social, Economic and Political Changes in the 20th Century
Roles of Race, Ethnicity and Gender in Income Disparities
Racial Identification
Ethnic Identification
Identity Formation and Discrimination
Assets of Households
Access to Services
Average Incomes
What do the Race and Gender-Related Income Statistics Mean?
The Consequences of Inequality
Considered Unfair
Results in Greater Poverty
Affects Economic Growth
Current Backlash
Solutions for Reducing the Inequality in Latin America
More Open Political and Social Institutions
More Equitable Economic Institutions and Policies
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Poverty and income disparity are not the same concepts. Poverty may decline in a country or region where income disparity is increasing. However, experience has shown that such a situation occurs rarely and inequality and poverty are closely related. This is because in a growing economy with stable levels of inequality, poverty invariably falls. As a result the Latin American region showed significant reduction in poverty levels in the 1970s, when its economies were growing with a corresponding drop in inequality. On the other hand, the 1980s saw a fall in incomes and more unequal income distribution resulting in accelerated increase in poverty."

Tags:inequality, colonial, slave, indigenous, discrimination

Abstract
The issue of the death penalty and capital crime has become one of the dominant issues debated in contemporary culture. This paper explains that the reason for this is, first, a moral questioning of the right to take a life, even when it is in retribution for extreme crimes like murder. The foundation of this contemporary attitude lies in the view that modern culture and society should be able to deal with extreme crime in a more humane and therapeutic way than is, at present, the case. It discusses how the issue of capital punishment also leads to hosts of pertinent issues and questions that often extend further than the confines of the topic and have a direct and indirect connection to social, cultural, and sociological issues. The writer points out that one of the most relevant issues debated today is the fallibility of the legal system. Many critics refer to statistics that prove numerous people have been executed as a result of legal or other errors. On the other hand, the reality of extreme crime is undeniable, and those who are in favor of the death penalty point out that there seems to be no other alternative, except social anarchy. These and other related areas form the basis of this study, which attempts to combine these disparate arguments into a coherent whole.

From the Paper
"Other aspects that will be explored are the more practical alternatives to the death penalty, such as extended prison time for those convicted of capital crimes. The feasibility of this aspect will be explored in relation to the other aspect such as cost and infrastructure as well as the profile and findings of the effects of long-term incarceration. One suggestion, for example, is that those convicted of capital crime should serve a minimum of 25 years in prison before the possibility of consideration for parole."

Tags:death, sentence