Abstract
In this paper the author presents a brief history of Western architecture, highlighting the major epochs in European architecture, and modern architecture in the US. The paper further discusses the function of architectural space, its use and its aesthetic. Various architectural techniques and their historical development are analyzed. The paper concludes with an an examination of modern architects, including Frank Lloyd Wright, whose designs are considered a culmination of the works that preceded him.

From the Paper
"It would seem logical to start our exploration of the history of architecture with one of the greatest artists of all time--Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475--1564), regarded by many as the "father of architecture in Europe and the greatest designer of the last 500 years" (Lowry, 167). Of all his architectural designs, the vestibule of the Laurentian Library, built to house the immense collections of the Medici family in Florence, Italy, stands out above all others. This vestibule gives the impression of a vertically compressed, shaft-like space which is dominated by a vast, flowing staircase that almost fills the interior, and unlike his contemporaries, Michelangelo ignored classical architectural ideals by placing his columns in pairs which are sunk into the walls; he breaks columns around corners and placed beneath them consoles not meant as support. In essence, Michelangelo "did away with classical architecture so prevalent in the High Renaissance and greatly influenced all architectural designs and forms that followed him" (Copplestone, 178)."

Tags:architecture, architects, Renaissance, Frank, Lloyd, Wright, Michaelangelo

Abstract
The Statue of Liberty is one of the United States' most beloved and recognized symbols. Designed to commemorate the American Declaration of Independence, the statue has a unique and interesting history. This short paper describes the statue's historical significance and outlines the statue's architectural style, construction, and materials.

From the Paper
"During the building stages, a lack of funding impacted the creation of the sculpture. In France, a lottery, and public fees were used to help raise funds for the statue. Art exhibitions, theatrical events, prize fights, and auctions raised funds for the statue within the United States. American Joseph Pulitzer also used the editorial pages of his newspaper to solicit funding among the American middle class (Statue of Liberty.org)."

Tags:declaration, independance, bartholdi

Abstract
This paper consists of two parts. The first part is detailed chapter notes and chapter quotations from the book "Slavery and Servitude in Colonial North America: A Short History." The second part is an analytical book review of that same book. The book and both parts of the paper show that servitude began as a means of populating the middle colonies, and gradually gave way to slavery as the need for agricultural workers soared.

From the Paper
"Indentured servitude was the critical institution for populating Virginia and Maryland during the period 1630-1660, when some three-fourths of immigrants were indentured servants. (8) "Around three-quarters of the emigrants were indentured servants, so called because they signed a written contract or indenture before boarding ship to start a new life across the ocean." (8) Under this system, people could hire their passage across the Atlantic in return for agreeing to be a servant for a term of years, the length of the term varying with the servant's age. (9) In return, the servant was allowed a set amount of goods on completion of his..."

Tags:servitude, slavery, colonies

Abstract
This paper includes a report of Armstrong's book which analyzes the history of Islam. It explains that Islam is little understood by many Christians in the world, and this succinct book helps make the religion more understandable and sympathetic. While illustrating the long history of the world's religions, this book looks at the long history of strife between them.

From the Paper
"The author of this book, Karen Armstrong is an ex-Catholic nun who writes on various religious issues. She spent seven years as a nun, and wrote a book about her experiences called Through the Narrow Gate (1982). She is an expert on religion, and has written numerous books on Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, along with her views of what the three religions have in common. She has won awards for her writing, and is viewed as an expert in attempting to show the commonality of the roots of religion. Some of these books include: A History of God (1993), Jerusalem: One City, Three Faiths, (1996) and The Battle for God, (2000). As such, she is exceptionally qualified to write this book on Islam. In addition, her books make it easy for the layman to read about religion and religious beliefs at an understandable level, and so, the author is not only qualified to write this book, she is an excellent choice as author because of her style, her background, and her writing ability. Often called the "runaway nun," her work is often controversial, but eminently readable and interesting. She is a professor of Christianity at Leo Baeck College for the Study of Judaism in London, England."

Tags:judaism, christianity, moslem, allah, muhammed

Abstract
The paper relates that Wright is neither an historian or philosopher but values cyclical ideas of civilizations said to be progressive and explores the reasons for their decline. The paper looks at how Wright discusses how the present day of globalization involves a 'new' civilization whose social and economic pitfalls are known to us. The paper concludes that the book is interesting but has no pragmatic solution to offer.

From the Paper
"This book is unusual for its briefness, the text covering only 132 pages with ample notes and explanation. Ronald Wright examines current events in terms of the 10,000 year history of Homo sapiens, seeing clear cycles and the present time's most immediate threat "may be nothing more glamorous than our own waste" in reference to unprecedented pollution and destruction of our environment. (p.7) For hundreds of years human beings have laboured under an idea that they are better or behave better than..."

Tags:cyclical civ, fatal errors, present situation

Abstract
This paper studies significant events in American History from the Reconstruction Era {1865-1895} to the Progressive Era {1895-1920}. The author also examines major historical developments from the Era of Prosperity and World War 1{1920-1945} to Post War Era {1945-2002}. The paper touches on the issues of slavery and women's rights and the ways in which these topics have fit into the events of American history.

From the Paper
"At the end of the civil war, the South was still a devastitated region, now was the time to start healing the wounds of war, which has divided the nation. The victorous federal commanders supported harsh penalties against Southern white leaders; the nation now tolerated new and humiliating kinds of discrimination against blacks. The last quarter of the 19th century saw an introduction of "Jim Crow" laws in Southern states. "The Jim Crow laws were a response to a new reality that required white supremacy to move to where it would have a rigid legal and institutional basis to retain control over the black population. What had shifted was not their commitment to white supremacy but the things necessary to preserve it" . Such system segregated public schools, forbade or limited black access to many public facilities, such as parks, restaurants and hotels, and denied most blacks the right to vote by imposing poll taxes and literacy tests. The Supreme Court ruling in 1896 in Plessy v. Ferguson that separate facilities for whites and blacks were constitutional encouraged the passage of discriminatory laws that wiped out the gains made by blacks during Reconstruction."

Tags:slavery, suffrage, feminism, war, tax

Abstract
This paper takes the reader on a tour of the history of architecture. It shows that the two main characteristics of good architecture are stability and aestheticism. The writer shows how the Ancient Egyptians managed to build with these characteristic so many years ago and how this has influenced modern architecture today. It compares later uses of material by the Romans and the Egyptians and analyzes which civilization introduced which material.

From the Paper
'The architecture of a building is conceived with two things in mind: Structural stability, and aesthetic design. In all structures, stability is obviously the aspect which takes precedence over aesthetics. A visually stunning building is worth nothing if it cannot stand the test of time. This is an idea which the Egyptians created, and then took to its utmost extreme. Many view the Egyptian style of creation as the father of modern architecture, being as durable as it was stunning. Several common elements of architecture such as pillars were reputedly created by the Egyptians, and these are still used in the creation of modern buildings. The Egyptian engineers had a good grasp of fundamental physics, and the role it must play in the design of structures. The Architects then took this knowledge, and fused it with grand aesthetic design, creating buildings which would become a simple base of reference for all structures which were built in the future. Egyptian civilization is known primarily for the structures it left behind. Most of which still stand, either in whole or in part today. "Although 3000 BC is considered almost prehistoric, the style of architecture which resulted from Egyptian building in this period is one which has endured as a major contribution to modern design and construction styles."

Tags:structure, beauty, stone, steel, brick, style, history, ancient, construction

Abstract
A short history of the great Greek mathematicians. Amongst those discussed are Pythagoras, Zeno, Euclid, Hippocrates, and Thales. This essay is a brief overview of their major contributions to modern mathematics.

Tags:greek, hippocrates, mathematicians, mathematics, pythagoras, thales, zeno

Abstract
This paper discusses the role of the Globe Theatre in Shakespeare's plays. The author describes the layout of the Globe Theatre and explained that, as all of Shakespeare's plays relied upon a highly interactive relationship between the audience and actors, he clearly wrote his plays with an eye upon such a performance space. The paper relates that Elizabethan plays, unlike those of today, were staged in a very minimalist style, with little in the way of scenery. Characters created the scenery with their words rather than the sets, which explains the ornate quality of the language. The paper provides a short history of the Globe Theatre and heralds it as a full-bodied, cut-throat performance space.

From the Paper
"Shakespeare clearly wrote his plays with an eye upon such a performance space. All of his plays rely upon a highly interactive relationship between the audience and actors, as is exemplified in the use of soliloquies, for example, where the actor is often in dialogue with the audience as he shares his thoughts aloud. The beginning of many of Shakespeare's plays, like "Romeo and Juliet," start with fights or quarrels, to settle the noisy audience down. At the Globe, there was no opening of the curtain or dimming of the lights, as in an enclosed theater. There was no artificial light at all, and plays were performed mid-day in the open air."

Tags:Shakespeare, architecture