Abstract This paper answers a number of questions on recombinantDNA technology. It covers recognizing gene products, determining recombinants, gene splicing, site-directed mutagenesis, Western blotting and SDS/PAGE techniques.
From the Paper Question In the process of DNA cloning a gene to be replicated is firstobtained by treating the DNA molecule with restriction endonucleases andligases DNA A gene can be obtained as a single restrictionfragment after digestion of a larger molecule with a specific restrictionenzyme In this case the DNA fragment comes from a virus The next stepis to prepare plasmids such as those from E coli The plasmids are cut ina single position converting the normally circular DNA into a singlelinear strand with
From the Paper "Genetics today is on the cutting edge of biological science, and scientists working in this area are involved in a wide variety of pursuits that will have profound implications for our future on this planet, with projects including the creation of new biologic entities, curing diseases, manufacturing synthetic versions of biologic substances, identifying different genetic codes and what they do, and perhaps finding a way to control that genetic information to produce animals with certain characteristics or without certain characteristics, including greater strength, resistance to disease, and a higher yield in meat, eggs, dairy products, or whatever they provide. Geneticists have already accomplished many of these things with grains, plants, and even certain farm animals. They are addressing disease through the creation of new strains of bacteria by means of recombinant DNA ..."
Abstract This paper discusses use of DNA as crime scene evidence. Science has added a weapon to the crime lab's arsenal. From a drop of blood, strands of hair, or other biological material left at the crime scene, scientists can provide a much better "fingerprint", namely DNA.
Abstract This essay will explore the risks of DNA research and genetic cloning in the context of Michael Crichton's book "Jurassic Park". While this paper will recognize the benefits of DNA testing, its main argument will be that, while Crichton's book is somewhat exaggerated and unrealistic, the basic warning is legitimate: that there is a certain point where man's creation can hurt humanity itself.
Abstract This paper relates that scientists have deciphered every last one of the 3 billion DNA "letters" in the human body. The author points out that the completed DNA sequence is now expected to give scientists understandings about the workings of the human body that have never been made before. The paper stresses that this development will revolutionize medicine and biology.
Abstract This paper discusses how the courts have sent innocent people to prison as well as sentencing innocent people to death row. Most people would want the courts to use evidence that can correctly punish the guilty and set free those who are innocent. The paper further discusses how DNA evidence works to link the guilty with the crime they commit and it allows the innocent to go free. DNA as evidence is vital in making the right decisions about crime.
From the Paper "Imagine sending an innocent person to prison on charges that he or she did not commit, yet the courts have convicted and sentenced innocent people to death row. "There is no way to tell how many of the over 1,000 people executed since 1976 may also have been innocent" (Additional Innocence Information). The courts have sent innocent people to prison as well as sentencing innocent people to death row. "What if there was a way of typing a person to the scene of a crime beyond the shadow of doubt. Or, more importantly, what if you could rule out suspects and prevent the wrong person from being locked up in jail" (Meeker-O-Connell). "
Abstract This paper answers questions relating to DNA templates and the differences between the structure, function, and the treatment of viruses and bacteria. The paper also explains the necessity for making a template in the replication process.
From the Paper "The DNA has to be replicated so that after cell division each new cell will contain the full amount of DNA material. After replication every new cell will contain one strand of the original DNA plus one strand of the newly synthesized DNA. The original strand acts as template to guide the next process which is the synthesis of a..."
Abstract Modern ecological pressures are very different from those faced by early Homo Sapiens and other early hominids. Changes have taken place in DNA structures sometimes relating to our environment and our sociological issues. In the paper the author examines issues related to these changes and the results in Homo Sapiens and Homo Neanderthalensis.
From the Paper "Our four micro evolutionary forces; mutations, gene flow, genetic drift and natural selection have far different results in modern man and in fact the move from natural selection to self-domestication is changing man into some kind of pseudo robot form and the environment into a kind of pseudo self supporting bionomic. From hospitals who save the rare mutation that may have succumbed in nature, from importing and exporting to favor those with the 'wrong' genes in the 'wrong' area regarding gene flow, from the highly mobile human and his ability to intermingle with anyone around the world regarding genetic drift and back again to the doctors who save those that may succumb to natural selection; we have annihilated our four micro evolutionary forces into oblivion."
Abstract This paper studies the genetic engineering process of cloning. The paper opens with a discussion about genetics and the author's assertion that cloning humans will happen in the near future. Next, the paper studies the process of cloning, which naturally occurs botanically. The paper then turns to cloning among animals and -- ultimately -- human beings. After an analysis of recombinant-DNA formation, the paper concludes with a review of the debate over the morality of cloning.
Table of Contents
I. Introduction
A. Background
1. What genetics and genetic engineering are.
2. Why cloning is tantalized.
B. Thesis Statement
II. Body
A. Cloning in Nature
1. Primary and Supplementary
2. Other examples from Nature
B. Artificial Techniques
1. For Plants
2. In Horticulture
C. Types and Techniques of Cloning
1. Molecular
2. Myths
3. Recombinant-DNA Formation
D. History of Cloning
1. From Spemann to
2. Japan
E. Moral Issues: The Controversy
1. For and Against
III. Conclusion
A. Brief Summary
B. Cloning has been going on for a long time, while cloning humans may seem very futuristic, it will happen in the near future.
IV. Appendices: Graphs
V. Annotated Bibliography
VI. Works Cited
From the Paper "Some examples of cloning from nature are the primary reproductive mode and supplementary reproductive mode. The primary reproductive mode occurs in species whose reproduction is strictly asexual; each population consists of one or more clones, depending on the number of individuals in the colony there was to start. Such species include all bacteria and blue-green bacteria, most protozoans, algae, some yeast, and even some higher plants and animals, such as dandelions and flatworms. Supplementary reproductive mode occurs in some algae, which reproduce sexually and asexually. Those individuals formed by asexual reproduction, called zoospores constitute a clone. In the club mosses and some higher plants, a runner, or stem, grows horizontally along the surface of the soil and at intervals produces roots and upright stalks. When the sections of stem between stalks disintegrate, the separated individuals constitute a clone."
Abstract This paper looks at the use of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in tracing human evolution. The paper explains that mtDNA is maternal, and non-recombinant, making it a useful tool for looking back at ancestral lines and tracing them to the first modern human. The paper considers the two hypothesis for this: the African replacement hypothesis and the multi-regional hypothesis.
From the Paper "Reconstructing human evolution is now done using genetic markers on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA to trace the relationships and origins of human populations. Because all mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is inherited through the maternal cytoplasm variations in mtDNA provide evidence of maternal lineage. There is no DNA recombination occurring in mtDNA so the only changes from one mtDNA to the next are due to mutations in each sequence derived from a common ancestor. Polymorphisms are common in the non-coding regions of mtDNA with an estimated..."
Tags: mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) African replacement hypothesis, multiregional hypothesis
Abstract In this article, the writer notes that people have known since time immemorial that it is possible to breed animals and plants to enhance their desirable characteristics and to 'breed out' their undesirable traits. In addition, the writer points out that many have argued that, since it is possible to breed horses for speed or stamina, it should be possible to breed human beings for specifically human qualities such as intelligence, kindness, and sociability. The writer discusses that with the advent of the genetics after discovery of DNA and the subsequent development of recombinantDNA techniques, this vision reemerged in a new guise. The writer maintains that because genetic research poses great opportunities for humanity to treat incurable disease and change humanity's negative features, genetic research also hides its many threats such as unexpected and non-predictable results, ethical and moral dilemmas. The writer concludes that society must be aware of the possible uses and misuses that may be made of biotechnology in the future.
From the Paper "The new techniques provided a way of isolating specific genes and inserting them in the cells of gene-caused diseases such as sickle cell anemia. The inserted gene would then take over from the defective genes. More than 4000 diseases are thought to result from the defective functioning of a gene or a set of genes and if it were possible to identify the location or site of each gene on a chromosome, it might be possible to replace the defective gene by gene therapy or gene manipulation. Scientists have identified some specific gene defects or abnormalities: some of these defects increase the risk of diabetes, others are linked to the risk of manic-depression and schizophrenia, some again result in dwarfism, or terrible disability. Many of the so-called monogenic diseases - those caused by the malfunctioning of a single gene - can now be detected while the embryo is in the uterus. The only alternatives for a woman carrying an embryo with a severe genetic disorder are either to go through with the pregnancy or to have it terminated."
Abstract This paper discusses how DNA analysis is carried out and its importance in certain circumstances. It particularly deals with the trauma of 9/11 and explains the advantages that DNA had over other identification methods in such a scenario. The author has included references to several studies that have been carried out as well as a diagram depicting human chromosomes and other tables of interest.
Outline:
Introduction
The aftermath of the terrorist attack on the Twin Towers
How important is DNA evidence in this case?
Will everyone get identified?
Restrictions on how DNA evidence can be used
Fragment sizes
Decomposing DNA How does the analysis get proper resource and funding?
DNA management
Source of DNA samples
Using Identification Number on the site
Storing into the database
How DNA analysis (methods) can be utilized in making identification
DNA Extraction
DNA amplification and analysis (PCR)
Mitochondrial DNA Single nucleotide polymorphism
Short Tandem Repeat analysis
Identifying victims
Probability ratio in linking to the victims
Linking victims using relatives and family member's DNA Limitation of modern technology
Conclusion
References
From the Paper "The deaths of thousands of innocent people can traumatize an entire nation, and this was the case on September 11, 2001 when terrorists attacked the World Trade Center and Pentagon. According to Gonzalez, Schofield and Schmitt (2006), "On September 11, 2001, 2,792 people were killed in terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center (WTC) in New York City. The number of victims, the condition of their remains, and the duration of the recovery effort made the identification of the victims the most difficult ever undertaken by the forensic community in this country" (p. 3). The use of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) as a means of providing virtually positive identification of victims of mass disasters is of fairly recent origin having been introduced about 50 years ago, but the impetus is on to use these techniques for a wider range of forensic applications. For example, during the 1990s, a number of states began to develop DNA identification programs, and in 1993, the FBI implemented CODIS, a national program designed to (a) support federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies in their creation of a population statistical database; (b) improve DNA forensic analysis methods; and (c) to serve humanitarian purposes such as the identification of missing persons or the human remains from mass disasters (Lyon, 2002). The FBI in particular favored the development of the CODIS application based on its "productivity and efficiency," but former director of the FBI crime laboratory John Hicks described the computer databank as "nothing more than an information management and screening tool" (Hoeffel, 1990, p. 527). The former director also indicated, though, that he expected that the initiative would ". . . save time and effort, and courts will have fewer cases to process because investigations can be better focused and coordinated" (FBI, 1991, p. 37). The CODIS application links the DNA profiles of convicts gathered by scattered state law enforcement DNA labs, encourages uniform standards, and pools DNA data to facilitate identification of criminals across borders (Lyon, 2002). The thirteen DNA sites used in the CODIS database are illustrated in Figure 1 below."
Abstract This paper discusses, in some detail, the way in which DNA is used for forensic purposes. The paper discusses DNA typing functions, its historical use in forensics and prosecution, the possible mistakes which may be made or encouraged by DNA typing, and the future of DNA in criminal and civic cases.
What is Forensics?
How DNA is Collected
How DNA is Read
Problems With DNA Problems With DNA
From the Paper "The forensic use of DNA has become widely accepted in America today as providing error-proof evidence for criminal cases. Many convictions are made on the strength of DNA evidence alone, and some fewer number of accused "criminals" have been cleared of all charges on the account of late-discovered DNA evidence. Depending entirely on one's perspective, DNA sequencing may be either a godsend or one of the most serious threats to an objective justice system to have surfaced in a hundred years. On the one hand, DNA evidence can accurately link a suspect to physical evidence left at the murder scene with a striking accuracy, with the probability for error being only one in five million when considered a (genetically) average suspect and an average gene pool."
Abstract This paper explains that DNA evidence exists in biological materials, such as blood, semen and even perspiration and can be found on a variety of items from cigarette butts to eyeglasses, even decades old evidence can contain DNA. The author points out that one of the biggest disadvantages of DNA testing is, if it is not performed correctly, the results are worthless. The paper relates that in the field, DNA fingerprinting is one of the investigator's forensic tools but its use requires full training in the process for collecting DNA evidence.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Overview of DNA Fingerprinting
Advantages of DNA Fingerprinting
Disadvantages of DNA Fingerprinting
What I Would do as an Investigator in this Field and Why I Would Choose DNA Fingerprinting
From the Paper "Lastly, Smialek, Word, and Westveer note a primary disadvantage of DNA fingerprinting is the ease in which it's contaminated. Samples have to be collected and handled with gloves that have to be changed often. Disposable instruments, or those that are thoroughly cleansed can only be used. Even talking, sneezing or coughing over evidence can make it worthless. In addition, there is the backlog of DNA samples to be processed which lead to lengthy waits between collecting and interpretation."
Abstract This paper describes DNA fingerprinting, which is a useful technique that was first used by health officials to detect genetic disease, but is now also playing a significant role in court cases. The writer explains that each person has their own unique set of DNA and the chance of someone having the same DNA is about one in a million. The writer then describes the six basic steps involved in carrying out DNA fingerprinting in a laboratory. The first use of DNA evidence in a court case in 1987 in Britain, when it brought a conviction for rape and homicide, is also described. Once its usefulness in identifying a person's guilt or innocence was realized, a program was set up in the U.S. for collecting DNA from all convicted criminals, and a database was established in 1994 called the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS). Other uses of DNA fingerprinting are also summarized.
From the Paper "DNA predetermines characteristics of living organisms. Half of a person's makeup comes from each parent. DNA resembles a staircase that is zipped up by two stands that alternate containing the nucleotides Adenine which pairs with Thymine and Cytosine which pairs with Guanine. These are the basic building blocks that make up DNA and have a backbone that consists of sugars and phosphates that are joined together by ester bonds. Each strand of DNA is linked and codes into various amino acids that are used by the body such as Alanine or Glycine. Organisms all have different physical and chemical characteristics because of the variance of their DNA sequences."
