Abstract
In this analysis, the writer explores Immanuel Kant's notion of epistemology and looks at the debate between empiricism and rationalism closely. Further, outside representations of theories such as Hume's causality are also commented upon. Finally, a synopsis is presented of the debate itself and the progression of thought that occurred with Immanuel Kant. The writer maintains that even today, Kant's epistemology would spark great debate among the foremost religious scholars, scientists, and philosophers. The writer concludes that if there truly is an answer, this view would suggest that it lies in the duality between both empiricism and rationalism.

From the Paper
"The notion of duality has been represented throughout the dawn of time in many aspects. Nature versus nurture, church versus state, and empiricism versus rationalism can all be depicted in many situations. As fundamental and concrete as one side or another may seem, truth has usually be captured in the middle of the debate. Immanuel Kant has been regarded by his peers as one of the greatest thinkers of the era. Kant spent a great deal of time juxtaposing both empiricism and rationalism with ideas that stemmed from his own epistemological viewpoints. It was this perception that Kant discounted Descartes, Locke, and others with theories that represented a natural duality that could not be accessed by contemplation or experiences, and added another layer of truth to the controversy between the two outlooks."

Tags:theories, knowledge, assumption, perceptions

Abstract
This paper explains how the philosophy of Renee Descartes and, in particular, Cartesian dualism were accepted into the Christian theological viewpoint through the process of interpretation and integration.

From the Paper
"The problem addressed by philosophy is that man does not know things directly but gains understanding through the impressions (phenomena) of those things. Rationalism is concerned with the impressions made on the intellect, empiricism with those on the senses. Neither is truly able to 'know' the world directly. Rationalists believe that the world can be experienced intuitively through reason, using deductive reasoning to investigate the truth. Deductive arguments move from a generalization a particular claim. It's all very logical. Deductive arguments provide evidence through the auspices of reason."

Tags:rationalism, intellect, empiricism, senses, experiences, senses, reason, investigate, truth

Abstract
This paper discusses how, as the explanatory power of empiricism began to grow apparent, rationalistic modes of belief and dogmas began to conflict with the verifiable truths the empirical approach to knowledge was uncovering. The paper then discusses the different schools of thought from which these philosophies have emerged in the Western tradition. It particularly focuses on the philosophies of Martin Luther and Galileo.

From the Paper
"Evolution implied that humans possessed a common ancestry with all animals and even plants. It may have been a matter of interpretation as to whether the earth revolved around the sun or not, but the concept that man is an ape who has been gradually evolving for 3.5 billion years fits nowhere into traditional Christian beliefs. Consequently, the theory--although as close to scientific fact as any fact ever inferred from the natural world--has remained controversial and not widely accepted in the west. So, it has only truly been in the past century and a half that science and religion have come faced off in a battle of wills. Still, the argument should be moot: empirical evidence may indicate one thing, but if an individual is willing to believe in an all-powerful being, they must also acknowledge that such a being could configure the world in any way imaginable--just as Galileo's Dialogue concluded."

Tags:dogma, belief, truth, evidence

Abstract
This paper examine the seemingly paradoxical roles of ego and rational thought and how they actually complement each other and are both necessary for the formation of a balanced human being. The author discusses the works of Bentham, Descartes, and Kant.

From the Paper
"The phenomenon of equating egoism with mere selfishness rather than as the extremely important underlying force from which not only rational thought springs, but happiness as well, perhaps originated within the tenets of organized religion, when it was perceived as "sinful" to consider the self, and saintly to sacrifice the self to any extreme, including martyrdom. Thus, while much of modern society is formed upon outdated codes of ethics, it can be said that it might benefit by returning to an even older form of ethics based upon an acknowledgment of the guardian ego and its primal awareness of - and inherent desire for - happiness as achieved through acts of virtue."

Tags:philosophy, rationalism, ethics, morlas, kant, descatres, bentham, jeremy, government, human

Abstract
This paper presents a review of Stephen Darwall's book, "Welfare and Rational Care", explaining that the book is essentially a philosophical argument in favor of protecting the welfare of individuals even if they aren't interested in protecting it.

From the Paper
"Welfare is a very controversial issue for ethical philosophers to deal with. Many of the difficulties relate to the dialectic between protecting the rights of the individual and caring for the individual even though they don't seem to have an interest in caring for themselves. Stephen Darwall attempts to deal with these issues in his book Welfare and Rational Care. In Welfare and Rational Care Darwall seems to be siding with the philosophical camp that views welfare as a caring act that is performed for the individual even if they might not want it."

Tags:welfare, rational, care

Abstract
This paper discusses the book, "Welfare and Rational Care" by Stephen Darwall, and its argument that intervening in the welfare of an individual is morally justifiable. The paper critically reviews the book and discusses the major points Darwall makes.

From the Paper
In "Welfare and Rational Care", Stephen Darwall examines the ethical nature of welfare. Darwall states, "I shall be claiming that a person' good is constituted, not by what that person values, prefers, or wants (or should value), but by what one (perhaps she) should want insofar as one cares about her (Darwall 4)."What this means is that an individual's welfare is essentially determined by what other individuals and society as a whole determine should be in their best interest."

Tags:welfare, rational, care

Abstract
This paper examines the concept of anti-rationalism versus rationalism. It specifically critiques the views of Plato, Descartes, Hume and Nietzsche. It discusses their views and the deductions they make according to their philosophies, as well as the restrictions that each of the philosophic systems place on their followers.

From the Paper
"Reason, despite both sides of the rationalist/anti-rationalist argument, has its boundaries. Being a philosopher, I am very inclined to the pursuit of the acculturation of knowledge and the way that it helps me view and guide myself through life. Reason, however, seems to be a bit displaced at some points in defining philosophic systems of ontology. It seems to me that reason can be used to decipher the pieces of the puzzle--to give an outline of the painting of life. Many scholars have had visions and other non-rational occurrences that defined the way they thought about life. Reason does not play a role here. Reason has a hard enough time dealing with the complex idioms as to why people do the things they do, much less figure out the cosmological vibrations of religions, sexualities, and spiritualities. Despite the onset of reason, there is still feeling, emotion, and connection that cannot be rationally explained to someone who has not felt it before."

Tags:understanding, ontology, boundaries

Abstract
This paper argues that Thomas Hobbes believes that government is necessary in order to make morality individually rational. This argument is carried out by looking at the distinction between individual rationality and collective rationality (morality). The tension between these two concept is illustrated by the prisoner's dilemma thinking exercise. Drawing on the evidence of the prisoner's dilemma, the paper then explains how government makes it rational for people to be moral. Lastly, the paper briefly compares Hobbes' view with Kant's view of morality.

From the Paper
"Like individual rationality, collective rationality is also based on the natural right and desire of self-preservation. As the name entails, collective rationality is the exercise of reason to discover what is in the best interest of all. Three laws of nature are found by collective reasoning. Firstly, because survival is much easier in conditions of peace rather than in war, every one is to "seek peace, and follow it" (Hobbes, 404) unless there is a need for defense. Secondly, to foster peace, individuals have to surrender their rights to all things and "be contented with so much liberty against [others], as [they] would allow [others] against [themselves]" (Hobbes, 405)."

Tags:justice, Golden, Rule, preservation

Abstract
This paper explains that Behavior Therapy and Rational Emotive Therapy were developed around the middle of the 20th century. The paper begins by discussing Behavior Therapy, which focuses on the client's behavior, it draws from classical and operant conditioning procedures and works to abolish maladaptive behaviors through replacing these with more adaptive ones. The paper then explains that Rational Emotive Therapy, on the other hand, moves to replace irrational beliefs that are causing distress or discomfort in the client's life with more rational beliefs. These two therapies have both differences and similarities which are discussed further within this paper.

From the Paper
"Behavior Therapy was introduced into the psychological world during the 1950s to counter the criticisms of psychodynamic theories of this era. Designed to focus upon observable behavior, Behavior Therapy (BT) strayed from the focal point of unconscious mental processes in which psychodynamic theory was based and laid a different foundation (the belief that maladaptive behaviors become linked with certain stimuli through chance) that would be followed for years to come (Carlson, Buskist & Martin, 2000). BT drew from previous psychological works such as Pavlov's classical conditioning and Skinner's operant conditioning principles and by the 1970's it became the preferred treatment approach to many presented psychological disorders."

Tags:compare, contrast, psychology, treatment

Abstract
In this article, the writer discusses Kant's theory of the categorical imperative in terms of a rational will and the individual's duty to exercise their talent.

From the Paper
"Immanuel Kant offered a categorical imperative in two formulations the first of which states that one should act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. This particular principle allows one to decide whether a particular act is or is not morally permissible. It presupposes that an individual is able to exercise his or her will in making such choices and further asserts ..."

Tags:Immanuel Kant, categorical imperative