Abstract
This paper examines racial discrimination, as enforced through law enforcement personnel and in clear violation of the U.S Constitution. It discusses three landmark cases where the same racial justice in America was differently interpreted and the impact on the performance of the duty of the law enforcement officers. The cases are Mapp vs. Ohio, 1961; Terry vs. Ohio, 1968; and Miranda vs. Arizona, 1966.

From the Paper
"In the Miranda vs. Arizona case, petitioner Ernesto Miranda was taken into custody from his home and locked up in the Phoenix Police lock up facility. Upon identification by the complaining witness, Miranda was taken in to one of the interrogations rooms of the police station, and questioned by police officers. Miranda was not advised of his constitutional rights, nor his right to an attorney. Instead, Miranda was made to a sign a pre-typed statement, where-in it was categorically typed and mentioned that the confession by him was voluntarily made, was without any threats, or promises of immunity, and "with full knowledge of my legal rights, understanding any statement I make may be used against me". (Miranda v. Arizona, 1966)."

Tags:miranda, arizona, ohio, blacks, police

Abstract
Compares the ideologies of three leaders: W.E.B. Dubois, Martin Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm X. Discusses the separatist radical views of Dubois and Malcolm X and the nonviolent, passive resistance strategy of King. Examines the inability of Dubois to consolidate influential groups.

From the Paper
"Martin Luther King, Jr., Malcolm X and W.E.B. Dubois
The writings of Martin Luther King, Jr., Malcolm X and W.E.B. Dubois reveal much about each man's sense of racial justice. All three men were extremely influential in the fight in ..."

Abstract
The paper explains that racial profiling presents an especially acute ethical dilemma for the administration of justice: how to effectively protect the citizenry while upholding a social contract in which, to recapitulate that famous principle of American justice, everyone is presumed innocent until proven guilty. This paper discusses three recent works on racial profiling-one source each from the scholarly (journal), government (report), and public (newspaper) arenas-in order to reach provisional conclusions about what racial profiling is, whether it works, what kinds of ethical issues it raises in the judicial context, and whether it is a viable policy. The conclusion is that, filtered through situation ethics for exceptional situations (such as airport security) and safeguarded by existing legislation for normal situations (such as traffic stops), racial profiling can be applied in such a way as to maximize law enforcement utility while respecting general ethical principles.

From the Paper
"Racial profiling presents an especially acute ethical dilemma for the administration of justice: how to effectively protect the citizenry while upholding a social contract in which, to recapitulate that famous principle of American justice, everyone is presumed innocent until proven guilty. This essay will discuss three recent works on racial profiling--one source each from the scholarly (journal), government (report), and public (newspaper) arenas--in order to reach provisional conclusions about what racial profiling is, whether it works, what kinds..."

Tags:racial, profiling, justice

Abstract
In this article, the writer examines whether black people are mistreated by the criminal justice system, that is, whether they face discrimination from both the police and the courts. The writer maintains that recent evidence in this regard implies that this is the case. The writer argues that the criminal justice system fails to provide a suitable service to minority groups.

From the Paper
"Racism in the criminal justice system can be seen to pertaining to a set of complex stereotypes, identifications, institutionalized racist attitudes, social disadvantages and erroneous cross-racial classification. It is represented by the failure of the criminal justice system to provide appropriate service to people of minority groups. In Canada, over representation of black people - particularly Aboriginal people - has been a dominant issue for the criminal justice system over the last twenty years."

Tags:racial, discrimination, justice

Abstract
This paper explains that the racial profiling survey, conducted by the United States Institute of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics and the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR 3151), was specifically designed to examine any differences in the rate that white and non-white drivers are subjected to traffic stops and to subsequent enforcement action arising from traffic stops. The author states that, according to the PPCS, black drivers were more likely than whites to be stopped while driving, as well as being stopped more than once within the same year. The paper relates that perhaps the most significant finding of the PPCS relates to the so-called "outcome test" of police searches. If the justification for racial profiling practices is "good policing", the data should reveal that searches of non-white drivers and their vehicles are more likely to disclose contraband than searches of white drivers, but, in fact, the data reveal the exact opposite.

From the Paper
"One of the most significant inquiries included in the PPCS analysis was an examination of the characterization of racial profiling, by some law enforcement representatives, as merely "good policing". This argument has often been used to suggest that non-white minorities drivers are disproportionately more likely to possess illegal contraband or to be engaged in criminal activity, thereby justifying the consideration of a driver's race among the factors giving rise to the initiation of traffic stops and police investigations."

Tags:justice, statistics, enforcement, traffic-stops, outcome-test

Abstract
This paper explains that racial profiling is the practice of stopping and searching African-American or Hispanic drivers at rates far disproportionate to their numbers on the road. The author points out that a number of cases of racial profiling have led to altercations, slayings, and national protests. The paper stresses that racial profiling undercuts our national commitment to justice for every person and that every citizen has the right to be treated as innocent until proven guilty.

From the Paper
"One example of racial profiling reported in Black Enterprise was that of Robert L. Wilkins, a Harvard-educated Washington attorney. He was traveling along U.S. Interstate 68 in 1992, returning from his grandfather's funeral, when a Maryland state trooper pulled the family's rented Cadillac over for speeding. The trooper asked to search the car and its contents, but Wilkins refused. So the trooper set loose a drug-sniffing dog to comb the car's exterior, including the windshield, the hubcaps, and the taillights while Wilkins and his family stood in the rain. No drugs were found, and the Wilkins family was completely humiliated. They were later awarded a $95,000 settlement from the Maryland State Police, as well as an agreement by the agency to keep records to help prevent occurrence of discrimination (Jones, 2000). This is a valid example of racial profiling, which should be stopped."

Tags:rate, hispanic, disproportionate, altercations, justice

Abstract
This paper examines racial profiling in the North American Criminal justice system. The paper presents a brief review of what racial profiling is, a few of its manifestations, what benefits it offers, and what disadvantages it presents that outweigh those benefits. The paper concludes that racial profiling remains far too clumsy and inaccurate a tool to be employed extensively.

From the Paper
"Racial profiling is an exceedingly controversial subject. For many people, racial profiling by police organizations represents the last vestiges of institutionalized racism in our society. For others, however, racial profiling is a means of improving policing methods so that innocent men, women and children can be protected from criminal predators. This paper will examine what criminal profiling is, its various manifestations, what benefits it offers and what disadvantages it presents. This paper will also examine the subject from a "Cop Watch" perspective - that is to say, emphasizing the need for ordinary citizens to recognize and appreciate their rights. In the final analysis, racial profiling may offer superficial appeal, but its many shortcomings and complications make it ultimately untenable. "

Tags:justice, race, profiling

Abstract
The paper contends that any solution that hopes to revise the American criminal justice system must address five issues. The paper details these issues: A lack of racial parity in criminal justice, a lack of socio-economic parity, overcrowding in the courts, overcrowding in the prisons and the rehabilitation of the thousands of prisoners when they are released.

From the Paper
"That the criminal justice system in the United States is biased is beyond dispute. Statistics abound that all confirm the same thing; if you are white and wealthy in the US, the odds that you will end up in jail are remarkably slim. Felony convictions send a disproportionately high number of African American and Hispanic men to prison, while their Caucasian counterparts remain free. The reasons behind this phenomenon are many - too many to be listed in this brief overview."

Tags:criminal justice system, crime and punishment, recidivism, racial profiling, selective policing

Abstract
This paper attempts to demonstrate that minorities, especially African-Americans, are unfairly treated by the U.S. criminal justice system. The paper cites statistics showing that, while all minorities are afforded less than fair treatment by the criminal justice system, African-Americans seem to be particularly vulnerable to sentences involving capital punishment. The paper further asserts that African-Americans suffer from political, social, psychological and economic exploitation at the hands of powerful whites in this country and, as a result, black people generally are purposefully put into situations where the commission of criminal acts are seen as the most effective solution to their problems. The paper concludes that the problem will only end once white people honestly recognize the racism that exists within the U.S. on all levels of society and end it.

Table of Contents
Race, Ethnicity and the Criminal Justice System
Drug Policies and Racial Disparities

From the Paper
"In 1996, six in 10 jail inmates were racial or ethnic minorities -- 41 percent were African American, 18 percent were Hispanic and 3 percent Asian or Alaska Native, according to the Department of Justice. The Sentencing Project, a Washington-based think tank, reported in 1995 that 32.2 percent of all African Americans men between the age of 20 and 29 are under criminal justice supervision on any given day -- in prison or jail, on probation or parole. Even more unsettling, nationally blacks are incarcerated at a rate of 7.66 times greater than whites. This paper shall demonstrate how minorities, especially African-Americans, are unfairly treated by the US criminal justice system."

Tags:jail, inmates, racial, ethnic, minorities, hispanic, prison, probation, parole, non-white

Abstract
This paper surveys the way negative race perceptions affect minorities in the criminal justice system in the United States, a system administered almost exclusively by white to protect whites. It discusses the issue of racial profiling. The lack of opportunity for racial and ethnic minorities to work in the criminal justice system are explored. The author argues for a more culturally diverse law enforcement system to ensure the fair treatment of minorities.

From the Paper
"The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) argues that racial inequities in the criminal justice system arise because the system is administered almost exclusively by whites and ..."

Tags:racism, criminal justice