This paper reports on the 1999 racial profiling survey, known as the Police-Public Contact Survey (PPCS) and the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR 3151) .
Abstract This paper explains that the racial profiling survey, conducted by the United States Institute of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics and the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR 3151), was specifically designed to examine any differences in the rate that white and non-white drivers are subjected to traffic stops and to subsequent enforcement action arising from traffic stops. The author states that, according to the PPCS, black drivers were more likely than whites to be stopped while driving, as well as being stopped more than once within the same year. The paper relates that perhaps the most significant finding of the PPCS relates to the so-called "outcome test" of police searches. If the justification for racial profiling practices is ?good policing,? the data should reveal that searches of non-white drivers and their vehicles are more likely to disclose contraband than searches of white drivers, but, in fact, the data reveal the exact opposite.
From the Paper "One of the most significant inquiries included in the PPCS analysis was an examination of the characterization of racial profiling, by some law enforcement representatives, as merely ?good policing.? This argument has often been used to suggest that non-white minorities drivers are disproportionately more likely to possess illegal contraband or to be engaged in criminal activity, thereby justifying the consideration of a driver's race among the factors giving rise to the initiation of traffic stops and police investigations."
This paper argues that the federal government should end racial profiling by requiring police and law enforcement officers to keep detailed records of each individual they stop to question or search.
Abstract This paper explains that racial profiling is the practice of stopping and searching African-American or Hispanic drivers at rates far disproportionate to their numbers on the road. The author points out that a number of cases of racial profiling have led to altercations, slayings, and national protests. The paper stresses that racial profiling undercuts our national commitment to justice for every person and that every citizen has the right to be treated as innocent until proven guilty.
From the Paper "One example of racial profiling reported in Black Enterprise was that of Robert L. Wilkins, a Harvard-educated Washington attorney. He was traveling along U.S. Interstate 68 in 1992, returning from his grandfather's funeral, when a Maryland state trooper pulled the family's rented Cadillac over for speeding. The trooper asked to search the car and its contents, but Wilkins refused. So the trooper set loose a drug-sniffing dog to comb the car's exterior, including the windshield, the hubcaps, and the taillights while Wilkins and his family stood in the rain. No drugs were found, and the Wilkins family was completely humiliated. They were later awarded a $95,000 settlement from the Maryland State Police, as well as an agreement by the agency to keep records to help prevent occurrence of discrimination (Jones, 2000). This is a valid example of racial profiling, which should be stopped."
Abstract This paper examines racial profiling in the North American Criminal justice system. The paper presents a brief review of what racial profiling is, a few of its manifestations, what benefits it offers, and what disadvantages it presents that outweigh those benefits. The paper concludes that racial profiling remains far too clumsy and inaccurate a tool to be employed extensively.
From the Paper "Racial profiling is an exceedingly controversial subject. For many people, racial profiling by police organizations represents the last vestiges of institutionalized racism in our society. For others, however, racial profiling is a means of improving policing methods so that innocent men, women and children can be protected from criminal predators. This paper will examine what criminal profiling is, its various manifestations, what benefits it offers and what disadvantages it presents. This paper will also examine the subject from a "Cop Watch" perspective - that is to say, emphasizing the need for ordinary citizens to recognize and appreciate their rights. In the final analysis, racial profiling may offer superficial appeal, but its many shortcomings and complications make it ultimately untenable. "
Abstract This paper attempts to demonstrate that minorities, especially African-Americans, are unfairly treated by the U.S. criminal justice system. The paper cites statistics showing that, while all minorities are afforded less than fair treatment by the criminal justice system, African-Americans seem to be particularly vulnerable to sentences involving capital punishment. The paper further asserts that African-Americans suffer from political, social, psychological and economic exploitation at the hands of powerful whites in this country and, as a result, black people generally are purposefully put into situations where the commission of criminal acts are seen as the most effective solution to their problems. The paper concludes that the problem will only end once white people honestly recognize the racism that exists within the U.S. on all levels of society and end it.
Table of Contents
Race, Ethnicity and the Criminal Justice System
Drug Policies and Racial Disparities
From the Paper "In 1996, six in 10 jail inmates were racial or ethnic minorities -- 41 percent were African American, 18 percent were Hispanic and 3 percent Asian or Alaska Native, according to the Department of Justice. The Sentencing Project, a Washington-based think tank, reported in 1995 that 32.2 percent of all African Americans men between the age of 20 and 29 are under criminal justice supervision on any given day -- in prison or jail, on probation or parole. Even more unsettling, nationally blacks are incarcerated at a rate of 7.66 times greater than whites. This paper shall demonstrate how minorities, especially African-Americans, are unfairly treated by the US criminal justice system."
Abstract This paper surveys the way negative race perceptions affect minorities in the criminal justice system in the United States, a system administered almost exclusively by white to protect whites. It discusses the issue of racial profiling. The lack of opportunity for racial and ethnic minorities to work in the criminal justice system are explored. The author argues for a more culturally diverse law enforcement system to ensure the fair treatment of minorities.
From the Paper "The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) argues that racial inequities in the criminal justice system arise because the system is administered almost exclusively by whites and ..."
Abstract The paper contends that any solution that hopes to revise the American criminal justice system must address five issues. The paper details these issues: A lack of racial parity in criminal justice, a lack of socio-economic parity, overcrowding in the courts, overcrowding in the prisons and the rehabilitation of the thousands of prisoners when they are released.
From the Paper "That the criminal justice system in the United States is biased is beyond dispute. Statistics abound that all confirm the same thing; if you are white and wealthy in the US, the odds that you will end up in jail are remarkably slim. Felony convictions send a disproportionately high number of African American and Hispanic men to prison, while their Caucasian counterparts remain free. The reasons behind this phenomenon are many - too many to be listed in this brief overview."
Abstract This paper begins by addressing the question of whether a B.A. degree should be a prerequisite for promotion in the criminal justice field (law enforcement). It then examines the advantages vs. disadvantages of distance learning in law enforcement. The paper then moves to the sensitive issue of racial profiling in the criminal justice field, as opposed to the civilian world. The writer concludes with a discussion workplace motivation in a law enforcement agency.
From the Paper "Many would argue that practical learning and field experience is more valuable and practical than a baccalaureate degree in any field for a promotion. The reasoning behind this relates to the idea that practical experience is by far more valuable than classroom experience. Research proves that many a CEO and President of a company or law enforcement agency in fact gained the majority of their experience from on the job training or life experience, not a classroom environment. However, what of a Baccalaureate Degree? Do such candidates truly have an advantage over others in any field?"
Abstract The paper examines the criminal justice system and reveals that minorities are over-represented, primarily because of racial prejudices within the system. The paper claims that the well-publicized war on drugs is one of the main causes for this over-representation, for it has primarily targeted poor people of color. The paper shows how despite repeated studies showing there is little difference in the level of drug use between blacks and whites in the United States, three-quarters of the people incarcerated in American prisons for drug trafficking, dealing, or abuse are African-American.
Abstract With the unmistakable emergence of global terrorism in the last half decade the controversial topic of racial profiling has become more and more unavoidable. With that in mind, this paper explores the topic by looking at what racial profiling is and why it is such an important topic of discussion. Proceeding onward the paper looks at the major areas of research which cannot be passed over when examining this issue. For example, the paper looks at the fact that the Toronto Police Department regularly engages in racial profiling when dealing with African-Canadians; armed with this disquieting fact, the paper pores over the literature that is available from 2000 onwards.
Abstract This paper explores the issue of racial profiling and whether it has a malevolent or beneficial effect on society. While presenting and reviewing arguments on both sides of the issue, the author of the paper comes out clearly against racial profiling and concludes that, despite the fact that racial profiling gives law enforcement a good excuse to violate the rights of some segment of the population, such a violation is not legitimate, as it inherently punishes the suspiciously innocent along with the guilty.
From the Paper "When discussing law enforcement and crime prevention, one inevitably hits up against a philosophical impasse -- the rights and freedoms of the individual are inherently at odds with the purpose of the government which has its interest in controlling their actions. As law enforcement becomes increasingly tough-minded, it is increasingly true that the rights of the innocent must be sacrificed along with the rights of the guilty. So those who are more interested in the law than in freedom will inevitably be at odds with those who are more interested in freedom than in the law -- as there is no way to logically determine which is more valuable, so there is no way to logically determine which deserves the greater protection. The issue of racial profiling is one which falls into this area of debate quite naturally. It is generally inspired not by rabid racism but is considered to be a legitimate way to enforce the laws which, because of institutional racism, takes on a very racist nature -- yet it can be defended on the behalf of the lawful."
Tags: tyrannical, crimes, violating, racism, lawlessness, minorities, criminal, justice, system
Abstract Racial profiling is examined in this paper as an abuse of law enforcement primarily against blacks and Latinos. It discusses the concept of race, the use of profiling as a crime fighting technique and miscarriages of justice based on racial prejudice.
From the Paper "In discussing the merits of racial profiling as a crime-fighting technique we must first examine the concept of race itself. Physical anthropologists have determined that modern homo sapiens evolved from non-human ancestors in Africa some years ago based on DNA studies and the analysis of proteins and that racial differences developed as evolutionary adaptations to the different environments into which they moved. There is no question that there are a great deal of obvious physical differences among human beings ..."
Abstract This paper looks at three questions of racism and justice in the United States. The paper discusses the concept of restorative justice as penal alternatives, racial profiling and the tendency for non-white youths to have more police interaction than whites, and the increased incidences of violence and police brutality towards non-white juveniles.
From the Paper "The concept of restorative justice is one that focuses on mediation between the perpetrator of a crime, the victim and the impact of the crime on the community. There are a wide variety of processes that this form of justice can take, but all of them "are based upon recognition that the offender, victim, and community are deeply interdependent when it comes to community safety" (Clear & Karp, 1999, p. 103). Restorative justice is a radical departure from the idea of dealing with crime and victimization. It does not seek to "punish" a "criminal," but instead tries to focus on the impact of every individual's behavior on the community."
Abstract This paper analyzes the extent to which American society may require affirmative action policies in various fields, including education and the workforce, to achieve racialjustice and end inequality. The writer proposes that society has not yet achieved a color blind, or gender neutral, society. The writer argues that, with respect to access to equal opportunity, while many organizations promote equal opportunity and fair employment, there is still ample evidence suggesting that women and minorities are not afforded equal opportunities, particularly in the American corporate world.
Outline:
Introduction
Evidence Against Equality and the Need for Affirmative Action
White Skin Privileges
Affirmative Action to Promote Equality
Conclusions
References
From the Paper "Early in his work the author argues that whites have experienced a "power deflation" as blacks and other minorities have attempted to claim social status and equality in corporate society (p. 12). The integrity of black interests is therefore "compromised" as more and more the focus is on restoring white supremacy and power (Walter, p. 249). Walter's argues that to focus the effort against white conservatism measures are necessary that will promote greater equality, including incorporation of affirmative action programs to help facilitate greater true equality and legitimize the needs of the black community. Elimination of affirmative action programs according to Walters would perhaps put this country at risk for never changing from how it is now, unequal and conservative in nature (Walters, 2003)."
Abstract This paper examines racial discrimination, as enforced through law enforcement personnel and in clear violation of the U.S Constitution. It discusses three landmark cases where the same racialjustice in America was differently interpreted and the impact on the performance of the duty of the law enforcement officers. The cases are Mapp vs. Ohio, 1961; Terry vs. Ohio, 1968; and Miranda vs. Arizona, 1966.
From the Paper "In the Miranda vs. Arizona case, petitioner Ernesto Miranda was taken into custody from his home and locked up in the Phoenix Police lock up facility. Upon identification by the complaining witness, Miranda was taken in to one of the interrogations rooms of the police station, and questioned by police officers. Miranda was not advised of his constitutional rights, nor his right to an attorney. Instead, Miranda was made to a sign a pre-typed statement, where-in it was categorically typed and mentioned that the confession by him was voluntarily made, was without any threats, or promises of immunity, and "with full knowledge of my legal rights, understanding any statement I make may be used against me". (Miranda v. Arizona, 1966)."
Abstract The paper analyzes the practice by law enforcement officials known as racial profiling, where individuals are routinely detained based on skin color as opposed to a just cause. The paper provides the argument of law enforcement that profiling is effective but also includes the arguments of opponents of racial profiling.
From the Paper "One of the most controversial law enforcements techniques is known as racial profiling. Racial profiling is defined as any action undertaken for reasons of safety, security or public protection that relies on stereotypes about race, color, ethnicity, ancestry or place of origin rather than on reasonable suspicion to single out an individual for greater scrutiny or different treatment."
Tags: terrorism, Middle-Easterners, African Americans, prejudice, racism, abuse, justice, public administration, legal system
