From the Paper
"The purpose of this research is to examine the ancient Mexican-Aztec God Quetzalcoatl. This deity, originally that of the Toltecs, played a significant role in the rise and fall of the Aztecs, a process which actually required only a few centuries.

A few hundred year before the arrival of Cortes, the Aztecs wandered into the Valley of Mexico, and, in a series of extraordinary brutal wars, conquered the other tribes living there. It is reported that the Aztecs, who in comparison to the people they conquered were no better tan barbarians, had a capacity for learning much from those they conquered. From the more warlike tribes they acquired knowledge of warfare. their more cultivated habits derived from the example of:

. . . the Toltecs, the civilized people whose symbol was.. "

Abstract
This paper discusses three general themes that are addressed in Ringle's "On the Political Organization of Chichen Itza." First, the paper explains that, in contrast to other authors, Ringle notes that worship of Quetzalcoatl is a primary means of Mesoamerican leadership and puts forth the fact that it is more properly viewed as a set of visual symbolism. Next, the paper explains that Ringle states that the ceremonial cores of specific larger cult centers served as a location for this investiture of leaders who wished to attach themselves to the cult. Lastly, it is surmised that Quetzalcoatl cannot be simply defined as a dynastic patron. Rather, leadership was often subdivided, with often some facet of dual leadership. The paper also analyzes the sources used within the work, the overall argumentative structure, and the fact that Ringle seems to contradict known theories on Quetzalcoastl worship instead of supporting them. The author the paper then ends his discussion with a personal reaction to Ringle's paper, stating that through Ringle's paper it can be shown that ritual is a powerful leadership tool, binding groups of people together despite disparate locations.

From the Paper
"In addition, Ringle notes that the UTJ jamb figures have this ornament as well. Likewise, so do all of the figures that are facing the Sun Disk figure that are found on the three faces that are carved on the inner lintel. Ringle further supports his disagreement with Kubler by observing that heron-feather ornaments only occur in the upper registers of the LTJ and the NT. This, he surmises, is further proof that this is an indication of specific rank or segment of warriors who were under the command of the 'Mixcoatl' figure. In addition, the author reminds the reader that among the objects given to initiates in the Quiche chronicles were heron feathers.
"Lastly, Ringle brings to light the fact that in the UTJ there is only one person who is lacking the heron feather ornament. This figure is situated to the left of the table bench carving. Ringle theorizes that if he is the initiate, the individual may simply not have been given his ornament yet, in the depiction. This theory would appear to be further supported by the fact that twin heron feathers are floating just above and to the right of the initiate."

Tags:leadership, structure, rituals, reaction, location, cult

Abstract
A fictionalized description of Aztec cultural traditions and mythology as it might have been acted out in the lives of real people at the time of transition as Cortez conquered the empire of Moctezuma. The story is told by a young man, aged 17, who intended to become a shaman, as his world is overturned by the arrival of the Spaniards.

From the Paper
"Last night I sat again at the feet of my father in the Place of the Skulls listening to the Shaman, Izcalli, telling the same story I have heard so many times. My little brother, Cat, short for Ehecatl, sat at my side. Cat was named for the day when he was born, the second day of the month, called Ehecatl. And that day, in it's turn was named for Ehecatl, the God of the wind, road sweeper of the rain gods. This god, like many others is one of the many forms in which the great Quetzalcoatl reveals himself."

Tags:anahuac, Aztec, cortez, history, Mexico, moctezuma, montezuma, mythology, quetzalcoatl, tlaloc

Abstract
This paper explains that Leon-Portilla's book "The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico" is an excellent illustration of how the naivete of one culture and the rapacity of another usually collide to produce wide-spread tragedy. The author points out that the writer's objectives were to give a voice to the forgotten victims of the conquest of Mexico, which history had denied them, and to present the surviving Aztec accounts of this conquest as being great works of literature, which rival anything found in the western tradition. The paper relates that the significance of Cholula was to undermine the civilizational confidence of all Aztecs who heard about it, to constitute massive loss of native life, to re-affirm the efficacy and might of the Spaniards and to reinforce among the Aztecs the desirability of aligning themselves with the Spaniards rather than joining with their Mexican brethren in opposition to the new arrivals.

From the Paper
"The massacre at Cholula had many negative effects upon the Aztec peoples - leaving aside the obvious loss of life. Most notably, the massacre revealed the penchant of the Aztec peoples of Mexico to conspire against one another by feeding Cortes and his minions half-truths or outright fabrications about a bitter rival; this sort of rumor-mongering on the part of the people of Tlaxcaltecas, suffice it to say, stirred Cortes to march on Cholula, killing all present there. Moreover, the brutal defeat of the Cholultecas was compounded by the fact that their idol Quetzalcoatl had not served them in any way during the battle."

Tags:quetzalcoatl, marina, anguish, prose, elegies

Abstract
Historians presume that the Toltecs are actually the refugees from the "Teotihuan culture" which fell apart during the 700 A.D. They were among the first purely "Militaristic" cultures and commanded the neighboring states by their military power. The paper shows that the empire expanded rapidly and the Toltecs began to take control of lands which were controlled by the Mayans. The Toltec Empire extended into what is present day Mexico, Guatemala and the Pacific coastal area of Chiopas. The paper describes how the Toltec Empire, which flourished from the 8th century, began to fall during the Twelfth century when Mayans, Chimetics and the other tribal powers finally subordinated them. Since there is no written record our primary source of information about the mesoamerican society is from the archaeological evidence discoveries. This paper examines the Toltec Society in detail.

From the Paper
"The era of the Toltecs is perceived by historians as the change from a priesthood society to that of a Militaristic one. Toltec society was a militaristic one that used its army to subjugate and occupy the neighboring lands. This is all the more evident form their architecture. Toltecs had great regard for their warriors and enshrined many of their brave warriors in their temples. There is an air of somber about their architectures. The Toltec's carved out images of serpents, eagles, jaguars and other forms of threatening images. They also had images of their god Tezcatlipoca, "Smoking Mirrors" carved out in most of their architectures. Toltec's used Limestone as the main material for their constructions. A characteristic feature of the Toltec architecture, other than the various carvings of snake, jaguars, eagle etc, is their flat roofed constructions. Unlike the roman civilizations wherein we see lot of dooms the Toltecs predominantly designed flat roofed buildings. [Ferguson,]"

Tags:Tezcatlipoca, Tula, Quetzalcoatl, Chich?n, Itz

Abstract
This paper looks at the world of the Toltecs, focusing on how they were shaped and how they helped to shape a larger Meso-American cultural grouping that shared a number of salient cultural features. The author also makes particular mention of Toltecs impact on the Aztecs.

From the paper:

?The rise of the Toltec civilization did however mark a distinct turn in some sense because after the rise of the organized Toltec empire the peoples and rulers of this region of Mexico would be more deeply and more consistently marked by a militaristic orientation than those people (culturally related as they were) that preceded them, as Bernal argues?.

Tags:aztec, civilization, nahuatl, uto-aztecan, indigenous, new, world, spanish, western, mexico, tollan, tula, teotihuacan, mixcoatl, ce, acatl, topiltzin, quetzalcoatl, chichimec, culhuacan, chac-mools, monte, alban

Abstract
This paper traces the conquest on Mexico and the Aztec civilization by Hernando Cortez and his men in 1519 against the backdrop of the forces which influenced the Europeans to seek such a mission. The paper shows that the Europeans struggled with their ambivalence towards the two Americas and towards the native people whom they viewed as heathens and whose complexed cultures they were unable to understand. The paper explains that Cortez knew he was on a mission, not just for wealth, but to preserve the hegemony, both psychological and literal, of Europe. The paper examines the Aztec civilization and follows the course of the conquest until the Aztec surrender to Cortez's troops in 1521.

From the Paper
"The Aztec culture was well developed; they had developed an agricultural system that fed a large population; had developed math that helped provide them with an accurate calendar; had built a system of water canals for crop irrigation; mined for gold, silver, tin and copper; and had created weapons such as clubs lined with volcanic glass called obsidian. These clubs could decapitate an animal with a single blow. They had developed cooking and eating utensils, and a system of trade and barter. They also had schools; they held slaves, and they practiced human sacrifice in religious ceremonies."

Tags:Malinche, King, Charles, I, Quetzalcoatl, Montezuma