Abstract
This paper explains prescribed fires are relatively small brush fires, carefully planned and executed, which help the ecosystem by recycling nutrients from old wood and leaves, by controlling insect populations and by preparing the soil for new trees and grasses. The author points out that prescribed fires are not always beneficial because, when conditions are wrong, prescribed fire can severely damage the very resource it was intended to benefit. The paper relates that resource managers have learned to manipulate fire-caused changes in plant and animal communities to meet their needs and those of humankind, while at the same time preserving underlying natural processes and functions.

Table of Contents
Introduction
How it Works
Pros and Cons
Using Small Fires to Prevent Big Fires
The Slash and Burn Method
Concerns
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Older areas of timber or brush often have significantly more bare ground beneath the older trees because of the increased competition for both water and nutrients. This bare ground is subject to erosion during heavy rains or rapid snow melting, resulting in a loss of soil from the area and increased loadings of sediment in downstream areas. As with wildlife habitat, fire can be utilized to create openings and reduce the density of these older, decadent areas, allowing grasses and shrubs to move back in. The increase in grasses and shrubs can help hold both water and soils in place, reducing the overland flow of water, the loss of soil, and the sedimentation of streams."

Tags:trees, planned, recycling, manipulate, farming

Abstract
This paper discusses how fire has historically played an important role in creating and maintaining ecosystems across the United States, especially in prairies and forests. In particular, it looks at how, in areas where fire has been suppressed and non native plant species have intruded prescribed fire is often used to attempt to restore natural habitats and how this can increase the natural habitat available to herpetofauna. The effects of fire on herpetofauna in a tallgrass prairie are compared to that on herpetofauna in various forest ecosystems. The paper concludes that in both ecosystems, the benefit of prescribed fire to the entire community outweighs the negative effects to the herpetofauna and that land managers must know the amphibians and reptiles that live in each community, their seasonal activity, and their habits in each area to most effectively conduct prescribed burns to restore their natural habitat. This paper contains tables.

From the Paper
"Fire has served an essential role in fire-dependant ecosystems, such as prairies and forests, for thousands of years (Axelrod, 1985; Swetnam and Baisan, 1996; Dale, 2006). Prairies can be found in areas too moist for desert and to dry for forests. Prairie ecosystems vary according to the environment, including soil type, water, grazing and fire (www.nps.gov, 2010). One specific ecosystem within prairies dependent upon fire is the tallgrass prairie. Tallgrass prairies once covered over 140 million acres across North America (www.nps.gov, 2010). Today only 4% remains. The largest area of tallgrass prairie remaining in the United States is in the Flint Hills, which stretches through eastern Kansas from the Nebraska border into north-eastern Oklahoma (Anderson, 1990). Historically, fire was a common in all prairies and occurred in tallgrass prairies every 2-3 years in the early spring (Collins and Gibson, 1990). The burning of the tallgrass prairie increases plant productivity, decreases litter on the ground, and decreases woody vegetation (Wilgers and Horne, 2006). Humans have altered this natural pattern of burning in prairies."

Tags:ecosystems, natural, habitats

Abstract
The paper examines the effects of wildland and prescribed fire on the ecosystems of eastern and midwestern forests in the US. The paper discusses three detrimental effects of fire on an ecological system in general and then focuses on the shortleaf pine species and explains how the shortleaf pine actually benefits from both wildland and prescribed fire in a number of ways. The paper does note, however, that caution is needed to ensure that prescribed fires are performed properly. The paper includes a map and a table.

From the Paper
"First, it is important to understand what makes up the shortleaf pine species. The shortleaf pine, scientifically named Pinus echinata, is a member of the Pinaceae family of trees. It is the most common of the southern yellow pines, with an average height between 70 and 100 feet. The trunk, on average, is between one and a half and three feet. It is considered one of the larger pines, and has a broad, open crown. The needles of the species are slender and flexible, and vary from dark blue to light green in color. They are often between two and four inches in length, with two or three in each needle bundle. The cones of the shortleaf pine are long and egg-shaped, dull brown in color, and vary from one and one half to three inches in length. The cones remain attached following maturity, but do open at that time to reveal thin, keeled scales with small prickles (Farjon, 2001)."

Tags:ecosystem, vegetation, nitrification, organisms, volatilization, soil, nutrients, Pinus, echinata

Abstract
This paper discusses how, given the historical and ecological history of Yellowstone National Park, the forest manager has three options in regard to controlled wildfires - suppression, fire management involving allowing natural fires to burn, and controlled or prescribed burning involving fires set by professionals. It also looks at the pros and cons of controlled burning in Yellowstone and gives recommendations concerning an option combining both controlled burning and suppression.

Outline:
What Options Are Available As Manager?
What Can Yellowstone National Park Do About This Current Issue--Fires In Yellowstone?
What Are The Pros And Cons Of Controlled Burning In Yellowstone?
Part II Recommendation Analysis

From the Paper
"In 1988, the largest fire in the history of site burned in Yellowstone National Park. The fire was a combination of unseasonably dry weather and controlled and uncontrolled fires. Some believe the fire to be a combination of experimental fire management plans that were launched after the research of the 1960s that shed light on the benefits of small fires although only thirty-eight of the fifty fires that burned were actually controlled or prescribed fires ("Wildland Fire"). Though this evidence seems to suggest that the destruction caused by the fire was a result of wildfire, not fire management, the argument can still be made that the additional twelve fires were not suppressed because of relaxed suppression policies due to fire management. "

Tags:controlled, burning, suppression

Abstract
The paper discusses how humans have altered the natural mechanisms in Ponderosa pine forests that used to control the intensity of fires. The paper explains the factors that determine the rate and intensity of a fire and looks at measures that can be taken to limit the intensity of the fire and its ability to spread rapidly. The paper describes the methods of prescribed burning, mowing, pruning and thinning and concludes that pre-treatment of Ponderosa pine forests results in fewer high-intensity, wide area fires.

Outline:
Historical Changes in the Pine Forest
Understanding Ponderosa Pine Forest Fires
Preventing High-Intensity Fires
Best Practices

From the Paper
"According to the UDSA Forest Service, one of the reasons for increasing intensity of fires is changes in the pine stands themselves. When the area was first settled the area, stand densities were from 20-50 trees per acre (Fitzgerald 2005). Now the average stand density is 1235-24070 trees per acre (Fitzgerald 2005). This increase in stand density provides an enormous amount of fuel for the fire once it gets started. These increases in stand density have also had an impact on the health of the trees and landscape health (Fitzgerald 2005). The soil and ecosystem are overtaxed. Unhealthy trees, with dying and dry branches are excellent kindling for fires."

Tags:prescribed, burning, mowing, pruning, thinning, density, fuels, trees, roots

Abstract
Surveys several large fires. Resulting loss of life and social, economic and political impact each had on society. The Cocoanut Grove Lounge fire in Boston, Massachusetts.; The Beverly Hills Supper Club fire in Southgate, Kentucky; the Happy Land Fire in the Bronx, New York. Causes of the fires. Damage. Fire prevention.

From the Paper
"Entertainment Facility Fires
On December 5, 1876, a major fire occurred in the Brooklyn Theater in New York when a stage backdrop ignited and 295 people were killed (Robertson, 1989, p. 8). Unfortunately, the tragedy of the Brooklyn Theater fire was followed by a fire in the Iroquois Theater in 1903, which was considered Chicago's safest theater at the time. A light set a curtain on fire and because there was insufficient planning for egress in case of a fire, human logjams and inadequate venting caused the death of 603 people. The Iroquois Theater fire, however, did provide substantial impetus to the fire prevention movement, especially in the field of public assembly occupancies (Robertson, 1989, p. 8). This paper surveys several fires that have occurred in public assembly occupancies since these earlier fires to review the social, economic and ..."

Abstract
In this article, the writer introduces, discusses and analyzes the book "Bordering Fires: The Vintage Book of Contemporary Mexican and Chicano/a Literature" by Cristina Garcia. Specifically, the writer provides a report on the book, including the major themes and ideas presented. The writer maintains that 'Bordering Fires' is a compilation of essays and writings about the Hispanic experience on both sides of the U.S./Mexican border, which attempt to define the unique cultural identity these people share. The writer concludes that written by some of the most well known and respected Chicano/a voices, the book creates a cultural heritage for anyone who reads it.

From the Paper
"Another man writes of his obvious charms to his female customers at the gift counter in a department store, and how he works the system and gets caught. There is something innocent about all these stories, even though the characters are not all innocent or even in some cases likable. However, just like the theme of the book, they show the melting pot that forms Chicano/a culture, and how so many different people and personalities make up these people. It also shows the view they have of one another, which is not always positive, and indicates again that all these writers are writing about people who are searching for their culture, their voice, and their purpose in a life that pulls them in two directions at once.
"Finally, the New Departures section is the hope of the culture in the future. These beautiful works, which read more like fairy tales or myths, indicate the hope the authors have for the future of Chicano/a culture and how it will change and grow, just as it always has done. One story sums up the theme of this book and this section quite well."

Tags:Chicano, Hispanic, heritage, culture

Abstract
This paper presents a detailed examination of wild land fires. Means of managing the fires, including controlled burns, the use of technology for pattern prediction and the development of protective gear are outlined.

From the Paper
"Americans have spent the last few months watching wild land fires burn out of control in several states. Arizona, California and Colorado have all been ravaged with devastating and extremely expensive fires that went out of control and destroyed homes, property and wildlife. While firefighters from across the nation rushed to aid the local firefighters in those areas, the public watched the coverage unfold on television news channels. Wild land fires can be devastating for many reasons. They not only cause financial devastation and property destruction but they interfere with the ecological process by destroying wildlife and plant life. This paper attempts to explore wild land fires and the steps that are being taken to lessen their damaging impact by getting them contained more quickly."

Tags:firefighters, devastation, destruction, wildlife, burning, winds, firebreak

Abstract
This paper takes a look at a slave uprising as documented in Stephen Oat's book Fires of Jubilee: Nat Turner's Fierce Rebellion. It analyzes the main character of the book, Nat Turner and how his seemingly small scale revolution set the wheels in motion for the eventual abolishment of slavery.

From the paper:

"Stephen Oates, in his book Fires of Jubilee: Nat Turner's Fierce Rebellion, crafts a compelling story. The story of this slave rebellion is indeed so compelling a one that it would be hard to imagine a telling of it that was not fascinating. But in the end Oates, despite his credentials, does a disservice both to Turner and to the larger forces at work in the decades before the Civil War. In order to assess Oates's treatment of Turner, it would be useful to examine what is generally known and agreed to about Turner. He was born on a plantation in Southampton County, Virginia, in 1800 and was from a very early age a popular religious leader among his fellow slaves. In part due no doubt to whatever had motivated him to become interested in preaching and in part because he was so popular with other slaves who came to listen to him talk about God, Turner became convinced that he had been chosen by God to lead his people to freedom."

Tags:freedom, revolution, lynche, martyr, motivation, research, rebellion, facts, North, South, plantation

Abstract
In this article, the writer notes that there is an increasingly comprehensive body of literature outlining the role that fire plays in the forest ecosystem. The writer discusses that several sources tie the role of fire to some of the present issues in the national parks and forests today; and illustrates how controlled or prescribed burns can be a positive tool in the practice of forest management. The writer maintains that suppression of burning leads to a variety of problems, including the eradication of certain species and the increased the risk of catastrophic fire. The writer concludes that by using controlled or prescribed burns, forest managers can reduce these negative outcomes, for the long-term health of the forests they manage by fostering conditions closer to those that occur in nature. Further, the writer notes that there are a wide range of examples of successful controlled burn programs that can be drawn on for insight and inspiration.

From the Paper
"In a 2005 article in National Parks Magazine, S. Kirkwood outlines how regrowth after a fire begins immediately. As more sunlight and rainfall reach the ground, grass and flowers quickly sprout from the soil, which has been enriched with ash.
"Turner, Hargrove, Gardner and Romme analyze in the Journal of Vegetation Science the relationship between heterogeneity and fire size. This work is based on a study of certain scientific after effects of burning in Yellowstone. The information gleaned from this report allows forest managers to determine strategic locations for planting certain types of plant species after fires."

Tags:conservation, burning, trees, burn, program