Abstract
The paper discusses the differences between crack and powder cocaine, and the history of the skewed legislative sentencing policy that is essentially a product of preconceived notions of crack cocaine. The paper also talks about what demographics are getting hit hardest in this controversial topic.

From the Paper
"Since the mid 1980's, Crack cocaine offenders sentenced by the federal court system are punished and sentenced harder than powder cocaine users, despite the fact that both powder and crack cocaine have similar harmful natures, just are used by different demographics. This bias is based on old data and relates to race, as black, low-income crack possessors are more often found with crack than white, Latino or other offenders. Congressional representatives and legislators are working hard to eradicate the 1 to 100 ratio, a ratio that essentially treats one gram of crack cocaine and one hundred grams of powder cocaine as the same offense."

Tags:crack cocaine, powder cocaine, congress

Abstract
This paper reveals that there are significant differences in federal sentencing guidelines for drug offenses which involve crack or powder cocaine, despite both being illicit drugs. The paper discusses the statistics that illustrate the effects of these disparities on sentencing for African Americans. The paper then examines the efforts that are being made to reform the current policy.

Outline:
Introduction
Crack Cocaine vs. Powder Cocaine Sentencing Disparities
Efforts Being Made to Reform these Policies

From the Paper
"There is no pharmacological or scientific evidence that justifies treating crack cocaine more dangerous than powder, according to Henderson (2009). Rates for both crack and powder cocaine use are similar and both have remained stable for more than a decade. The idea that violent crime is associated crack cocaine, and therefore that it warrants stricter sentencing is simply a myth. Henderson notes that "minimal violence is involved with crack cocaine cases -- far less than half of the crack cocaine cases involved a weapon, while most actual violence is associated with the drug trade and not the drug itself". With this knowledge that there is no scientific difference in the dangerousness of the two drugs and that violence is not necessarily associated more with crack cocaine, it becomes clear that the sentencing disparities are unfounded, at best, racially motivated, at worst.
"Current drug laws punish small-time users and dealers the same as or more harshly than drug kingpins. This legislation unfairly targets minorities, like African American males, and is compounded by federal law enforcement tactics which focus on inner city communities that are demographically rich with African Americans, as opposed to suburban or rural areas. Boders et. al (2008) found that when "compared to Whites, African Americans were much more likely to use crack cocaine, (and) equally likely to use powder cocaine"."

Tags:sentencing, drugs, enforcement

Abstract
"Powder" is the tale of a young man and his father, and the lack of a loving relationship between the two. The writer explains how the son is more like the man of the family, while the father is often more like a young boy, illustrating the adult in a relationship is not always really the most grown up or mature, and that people can learn about themselves by how they treat their relationships with their loved ones. Includes an outline.

From the Paper
"Unfortunately, the young man in this story is afraid to speak to his father, "I was supposed to say, 'Right, doctor,' but I didn't say anything" (Wolff). He is also abnormally obsessed with minuscule details for someone who is so young. "True, I always thought ahead. I was a boy who kept his clothes on numbered hangers to ensure proper rotation. I bothered teachers for homework assignments far ahead of their due dates so I could make up schedules" (Wolff). Sadly, this young man has grown up too fast, and has little enjoyment of youth."

Tags:father, son, relationship, adult

Abstract
In this review of "Powder" by Tobias Wolff, the writer offers an introduction to the story and discusses its symbolisms. It highlights the theme of the story as being about the relationship between a father and son. It discusses how the accepted roles of a man and a boy can appear confused. The writer maintains that the adult in the relationship is not always who it seems. The paper concludes that Wolff's story shows how people can learn about themselves through their relationship with others.

From the Paper
"The purpose of this paper is to introduce, discuss, and analyze the short story "Powder," by Tobias Wolff. Specifically, it will discuss symbols in the story to support the thesis. "Powder" is the story of a boy and his father, and the loving relationship that is not always apparent between the two. The boy is more like a man, and the father is more like a boy, showing the adult in a relationship is not always who it seems, but that people can learn about themselves by their relationships with others."

Tags:review, symbolism, theme, father, son, relationship, roles, accepted, confused, adult

Abstract
This paper differentiates between the dangerous slab avalanche, and the often harmless powder avalanche. It explains what weather conditions contribute to the worst avalanches. It also examines the significant impacts avalanches have on the environment and shows certain preventative techniques to protect and limit the damages and deaths caused by avalanches.

From the Paper
"There are two types of avalanches; powder avalanches and slab avalanches. In very cold, dry weather, light powdery snow grains don't stick together. If this snow is pushed down the slope, it forms a powder avalanche, which swirls along like an enormous white cloud. Normally these avalanches aren't that dangerous as there isn't much snow in them, they are also easy to get away from, most of the time. The slab avalanche is the most dangerous, and causes the most damage. A slab avalanche starts off as a solid chunk of frozen snow about the size of a soccer field and about 30 feet thick ( McClung, David and Schaerer, Peter, 129). It usually forms on sunny days that are followed by frosty nights and snow that melts and freezes again. These slabs are cracked, commonly by the edge of a ski, and break into many different thick pieces that haul down the slope, taking out whatever is in its path."

Tags:avalanche, disasters, disasters, natural, related, weather

Abstract
This paper notes that the powdered beverage industry covers a number of different types of beverages, from various types of tea to breakfast drinks like Tang. The paper describes this as one of the fastest growing sectors in the beverage industry as manufacturers try to market products by emphasizing the flexible, easily-customizable nature of their drink mixes.

Tags:powdered, beverage, industry

Abstract
After a decade of contentious debate regarding the federal sentencing disparities between crack cocaine and powder cocaine, a number of significant initiatives to reform current policy have recently emerged. These include legislation introduced in Congress and a series of hearings resulting in recommendations by the United States Sentencing Commission. This paper provides a comparative analysis of the sentencing disparities with regard to crack cocaine as compared to powder cocaine. It examines the development of federal legislation creating greater criminal penalties for crack cocaine than powder cocaine and assesses recent developments, studies, and research in an effort to resolve the sentencing disparities. Finally, it offers recommendations to resolve this sentencing issue for future legislation, law enforcement agencies, and federal and local governments.

Paper Outline
Executive Summary
Introduction
Background of Cocaine
Statement of the Problem
Impact of Disparity in Sentencing
Demographic Profile of Federal Cocaine Offenders
Operational Assumptions
Statistical Analysis
Significance of the Research
Review of Related Literature
Recommendations and Hypothesis
Proposed Methodology
Proposed Data Collection
Research Findings
Results
Recommendations
Conclusion
Bibliography

From the Paper
"A possible question for policy makers is whether the career offender guideline, especially as it applies to repeat drug traffickers, clearly promotes an important purpose of sentencing. Unlike repeat violent offenders, whose incapacitation may protect the public from additional crimes by the offender, criminologists and law enforcement officials have noted that retail-level drug traffickers are readily replaced by new drug sellers so long as the demand for a drug remains high. Incapacitating a low-level drug seller prevents little, if any, drug selling; the crime is simply committed by someone else."

Tags:criminal, law, prison, smuggling, incarceration, trafficking

Abstract
This paper evaluates several issues that may affect sentencing disparities for abusing crack as opposed to powder cocaine. Among these issues examined is race and its impact on sentencing. Gender issues are also considered, as are the pre-natal effects of these drugs. The writer clarifies the difference between crack and powder cocaine and how this may also influence sentencing.

Outline:
Sentencing Disparities
Cocaine and 'Crack Babies'
Past Research
Moral and Legal Issues
Development
Bibliography

From the Paper
"There are more African-American individuals on death row than white individuals and most of these individuals awaiting execution have committed drug crimes, many of which involved crack, and less that involved powder cocaine (Pope, 1976). Even the Attorney General of the United States is willing to admit that drug laws are the main reason that there are so many African-Americans on death row today and that African-Americans are arrested at a higher rate for these types of crimes than Caucasian individuals (Pope, 1976). While this may seem irrelevant to a discussion of crack vs. powder cocaine specifically, the issue of minority status is actually somewhat important in sentencing guidelines for all crimes, although it is not an issue that judges are legally allowed to use."

Tags:illegal, drugs, substance, abuse, drug, convictions

From the Paper
"The sentencing disparity between convictions for crack cocaine and powder cocaine is discriminatory toward African-Americans. Federal policy is responsible for this disparity, the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 and Public Law 104-38 (Federal Sentencing Guidelines, Amendment, Disapproval) being the most significant contributors. Differences in the consumption and marketing patterns of crack cocaine and powder cocaine do not justify stiffer penalties. Ironically, the inequitable sentencing of African-Americans has done little to remedy the problem of cocaine trafficking in the United States.
Government officials justify the disparity in sentencing between powder cocaine and crack cocaine based on the devastating effect that the latter drug exerts at the community level. According to testimony at a recent Congressional hearing.."

Abstract
This paper provides a brief history of cocaine use and an overview of the disparity between powdered cocaine users and crack cocaine users and will enumerate the reasons for the disparity. The paper also looks at the disparity between the sentencing of powdered cocaine users and crack cocaine users.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
Review of Related Literature
Cocaine: Facts and History
Effects of Cocaine
History of Cocaine Use
Social Classes of America
Upper Class
Middle Class
Working Class
Lower Class
Crack vs. Powdered Cocaine
Powdered Cocaine
Crack Cocaine
Class Disparity on Powdered Cocaine and Crack Cocaine Use
Introduction of Cocaine to the Capitalist Economy
The Disparity of Crack vs. Cocaine Use
Sentencing Policy on Cocaine and Crack Cocaine
Racial Disparity
Legislative History
Litigation
Conclusion

From the Paper
"In the case United States v. Armstrong, four defendants in Los Angeles charged with trafficking crack cocaine filed a motion for discovery or dismissal, alleging that they were victims of "selective prosecution" by race. This motion was made after the federal public defender's office found that all 24 crack cocaine cases closed in Los Angeles in 1991 involved blacks. The district court and the circuit court upheld the motion, but the federal prosecutor refused to comply. The government then appealed to the Supreme Court, which decided in favor of the government."

Tags:history class race violence, sentencing policy