This paper is a research proposal to determine the current and potential clinical applications for positronemissiontomography and to develop a "best practices" approach to developing a partnership between cognitive scientists and neuroscientists.
Abstract This paper explains that PositronEmissionTomography (PET), an
imaging technique, allows clinicians to localize safely and monitor accurately the activity of areas in the normal human brain during specific mental tasks. The author points out that the traditional methods of research, such as experiments in memorizing and observation of individuals who had suffered localized brain damage, have been facilitated by innovative methodologies, such as positronemissiontomography, that connect human behavior to specific brain structures and functions. The paper relates that the research methodology will be a critical review of the scholarly and relevant literature, followed by a qualitative and quantitative analysis of how partnership between cognitive scientists and neuroscientists can be created and improved based on the technique's demonstrated efficacy in various clinical settings. Color illustrations.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of Study
Importance of Study
Review of Related Literature
Background and Overview
How PositronEmissionTomography Works.
Figure 1. Typical PositronEmissionTomography Device, Clinician and Patient
Radionuclides Used in PET Figure 2. PET Scan of Damaged Human Brain
Methodology
Data-gathering Method and Database of Study
From the Paper "PET provides clinicians with a functional brain-imaging technique to identify brain regions activated in motor, sensory, cognitive, and emotional processes. ?PET is based on a simple principle: a radioactive isotope that emits [[Beta].sup.+] particles (i.e., positrons, with a mass equal to an electron but with a positive electrical charge) is artificially integrated into a biological molecule and then injected intravenously.? In the various PET applications, a chemical compound that is "labeled" with a short-lived, positron-emitting radionuclide (either carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine) is injected into the body. The activity of such a radiopharmaceutical is then measured quantitatively throughout the target organs through the use of photomultiplier-scintillator detectors."
Abstract This paper examines how nuclear medicine is a medical specialty that involves the use of radioactive isotopes in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. It looks at how positronemissiontomography (PET) imaging is used extensively as diagnostic tool in the U.S. and Europe, but has limited availability in the U.K. It shows how the information obtained from these examinations can differentiate between different organs without the need for the patient to undergo surgical procedures. It also examines how, despite the long history of PET development, the costs and effectiveness of its use in routine clinical practice remain unknown. It reviews the relevant literature to determine whether PET imaging should be used more extensively in the U.K. instead of conventional nuclear medicine imaging.
From the Paper "These researchers report that despite the long history of PET development, the costs and effectiveness of its use in routine clinical practice remain virtually unknown. However, what is known is that the bottom line for these and other advances in medical technology is clinician and patient accessibility. According to Michael Johns, "Physicians who do not have access to or choose not to utilize cutting-edge technologies could potentially limit the care provided to their patients. But for many in the developing world, the cost of new equipment and materials continues to be prohibitive. Even in the West, both public and private insurance agencies take into account the cost of a test or therapy before deciding whether to pay for it" (2001, 132)."
A look at how the technique of PET (positronemissiontomography) has advanced both our ability to diagnose brain injury and our knowledge of localisation of function within the brain.
Abstract This paper examines the technique of positronemissiontomography, a technique used for imaging brain activity by measuring the flow of blood containing radioactive atoms that emit positrons. It describes the uses of PET scanning as a research tool and in the diagnosis of brain injuries. It also compares PET to other similar methods such as MRI scanning, x-raying and CT scanning.
From the Paper "In particular, PET has been used with great success in the study of which parts of the human brain are involved in language. With the assistance of positron emission tomography, studies have shown striking evidence that there are several independent regions of the brain involved in language. Among these areas that are crucial for language and speech are Wernicke's and Broca's regions. Due to the use of these non-invasive techniques (PET, MRI etc.) we now know that these regions are significantly spread out and are not located near the conventional language regions. We can see in scans from patients that different regions of the brain are used for specific tasks. Eg. a patient hearing words, reading words and seeing words uses very different parts of the brain for each task. (Delcomyn; 1998)."
This paper discusses the use of PositronEmissionTomography (PET) scans to reduce the need for exploratory surgery and other invasive techniques and to target better radiation therapy in cancer patients.
Abstract This paper explains that PositronEmissionTomography (PET) scanning is an advanced imaging technique that can differentiate between malignant lesions and benign lesions in almost every process in cancer diagnosis, staging and treatment because PET is more sensitive than CT scanning or Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) techniques. The author explains that for PET scanning, the patient is injected with positron emitting radionuclides and placed in a tube and surrounded by a ring of detectors; when one of these high-energy photon rays is detected, the source location can be determined and mapped by a specialized software package. The paper relates that, after radiation and surgery there is considerable damage to surrounding tissue; therefore, it is often difficult to distinguish living cancer cells from morphological changes caused by surgery or tissue death caused by radiation; however, because dead tissue and cancer cells have different glucose metabolism rates, they are easy to distinguish by PET imaging.
Table of Contents
Improving Outcomes for Radiation Therapy
How PET Scanning Works
Radiation Therapy
Using PET to Analyze the Effectiveness of Radiation Treatments
From the Paper "Because PET scanning is based on glucose levels, it is important that these be controlled prior to the scan. Patients are usually told to fast for 4-6 hours prior to the test. However, they can drink water and take any medications that they are on. The goal is to get the base glucose level lower than 160 mg/dL before administering the FDG or other isotope. Patients with diabetes should continue their routine of eating small meals and taking their insulin. Then these small inconveniences, PET imaging is non-invasive and causes little discomfort to the patient."
This paper highlights the advances in imaging technology that have allowed scientists to discover how memory works and the areas of the brain involved.
Abstract This paper looks at how the different advances in brain imaging-techniques have contributed to scientists increased ability to understand the concept of memory. It looks at the advent of Computed Tomography (CT), Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and PositronEmissionTomography (PET), and what they have meant to the increased ability to understand and treat brain, and memory disorders.
From the Paper "For example, fMRI was found useful for research by Awh and colleagues (1999) to observe brain activations during the performance of a spatial working memory task. In this investigation, subjects were given a spatial working memory task and a control task. Using fMRI the researchers found a functionally distinct, region that showed sustained activity during the spatial working memory task, confirming the location for the neural bases for that function. In the past, researchers who wanted detailed studies of human brain activity struggled because they lacked effective investigative tools. In experiments with humans the best technologies brought only limited success in mapping the processes of consciousness."
Abstract In the last decade, computed tomography (CT) has undergone major advances and the development of multi-slice computed tomography can be considered as revolutionary because it has not only enhanced diagnostic imaging capabilities, but also ensured better patient compliance and comfort. The paper explores the numerous advantages that multi-slice computed tomography offers, the current applications of multi-slice computed tomography, future trends and also attempts to determine if there are any drawbacks to this procedure. A table and a number of photographs are included after the bibliography.
From the Paper "The continuous evolution of computed tomography has seen many technological improvements, and multi-slice computed tomography is one such revolutionary development. It has numerous advantages like faster acquisition speed, reduced artifacts, reduced need for contrast, high resolution images etc. Although this imaging modality has some drawbacks like increased radiation exposure, and difficulty in reviewing, reporting and archiving data, the benefits clearly outweigh the disadvantages.
"The clinical applications of multi-slice computed tomography include the ability to detect small lung nodules, visualization of cranial vessels and aneurysms, cardiac imaging and virtual colonoscopy. The future trends in development will include functional and perfusion imaging, advanced image processing and computer-aided diagnosis programs. Problems like noise and excess radiation exposure is likely to be tackled effectively."
Abstract This paper discusses how in a pet friendly society pets offer human kind their services as teachers, therapists, healers and companions. It discusses how pets have the ability to share in the work that humans endure, as well as aid people in feeling more secure. The paper further defines a pet friendly society as one in which cures for cancer may be achieved, or disabled people are allowed to exist in dignity.
With little more than a request for food, shelter and love, pets enhance the lives of every human being. Pets do not care about race, gender, level of education, income, or the mistakes that people make. Regardless of those that suggest that pets are a bothersome inclusion in the world, a pet friendly society even serves the naysayers and skeptics with positive outcomes.
Abstract This paper introduces, discusses and analyzes the topic of the pet business. Specifically, the paper discusses the business in America focusing primarily on doggie day care services. According to the paper, the pet business in America is booming, and shows no signs of slowing down anytime soon.
Outline:
The Pet Business
Doggie Day Care
Other Pet Businesses
Protecting Pets
From the Paper "With the growing number of two-parent workers and long hours spent at work, many people chose not to own pets because they did not have time enough to devote to them. Doggie day care has changed that. The business is growing phenomenally, and even corporations such as PetsMart now offer doggie day care services in addition to grooming and training. The industry started out small, with centers operated by local area entrepreneurs who saw a need and began to fill it by opening small centers where a few dogs could spend time together. As the idea caught on, more and more centers have opened, and at least one company, Central Bark, offers franchises throughout the country. Central Bark's website refers to dogs as "children" or "babies," something that is very consistent with many pet owners, who treat their pets as their surrogate children. This phenomenon is also growing, and is helping fuel the growth in all aspects of the pet care business. This doggie day care company recognizes this, and refers to their day care as "preschool" for pets, tapping into the emotional side of the pet care business, and attracting owners who treat their pets like children."
Abstract This is the write-up for a laboratory looking at the emission spectra of various light sources: incandescent lights, fluorescent lights, neon lights and sunlight, using diffraction glasses as a simple spectroscope. The emission spectra of the different lighting sources are noted in the paper as color spectra seen, Angstrom unit range for the color spectra seen, and intensity of the spectra seen.
Abstract This paper illustrates the current developments in the diagnostic imaging of malignant pleural mesothelioma, an aggressive form of malignancy in the pleura that often leads to death. Because of its gravity, there is a need for an effective imaging tool to help determine the tumor stage and extent, and to predict the prognostic outcomes of a chosen treatment . The author describes the disease and its histologic traits and also discusses past and current practices on diagnostic imaging such as the chest x-ray, computed tomographic scan, magnetic resonance imaging, and positronemissiontomography scan. The potential and limitations of these technologies are also analyzed. This paper includes an annotated bibliography.
Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
A Look into Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma
Recent Advances in Medical Imaging in the Diagnosis of Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma
Computed Tomography Scan
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
PositronEmissionTomography Molecular Imaging
Conclusion
From the Paper "The search for the most efficient, cost-effective imaging modality is still ongoing. Current modalities, CT Scan, MRI, and FDG-PET, have their own limitations as well as their advantages. It is only through research that the medical field may be able to utilize these existing technologies. The importance of early diagnosis through non-invasive means can not be emphasized enough. Because of the aggressive nature of malignant pleural mesothelioma, the use of these current modalities must be utilized as early as possible especially by people who are high risk."
Abstract Discusses early development, methods, radiology and traditional x-rays. Covers digital imaging and x-rays, computer tomography scans (CT), positronemission tomograpohy (PET) tomography and gamma rays, and thermography.
From the Paper "The first imaging techniques developed for medicine, x-rays, were discovered in 1985 by William Roentgen, and they were first used in medicine in 1896 (Lentle and Aldrich, 1997). Early radiology was chiefly concerned with skeletal morphology."
Abstract How the brain functions has been of great interest to man for centuries, and in the past few decades, technology has created tools to investigate this process. This paper provides an overview of the five major imaging modalities for brain function: EEG, MEG, MRI, PET, and SPECT. The paper discusses the technology, the applications, and the future applications, as well as explores the current issues in the area. The paper includes colored photographs and figures.
From the Paper "Functional imaging tools in current use include electroencephalography (EEG), magnetoencephalography (MEG), single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), positron emission tomography (PET), and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Functional brain imaging is used to diagnose and track the treatment of various brain disorders such as stroke, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, and other psychological disorders. Functional tools are also used in complex pre-surgical planning and surgical mapping. Issues in the literature relate to the removal of artifacts and increasing resolution. Future directions of the technologies include the combination of modalities, development of surgical planning methods, clinical applications in stroke research, and future uses in epilepsy."
This paper discusses computer tomography, an X-ray technique that is used to produce very detailed images of internal organs, commonly know as a CT, CT scan, or CAT.
Abstract This paper explains that, while conventional X-ray exams produce two-dimensional images, CT scans use an X-ray-sensing unit that rotates around the body and a large computer to create cross-sectional images of the inside of your body. The author points out that the paranasal sinuses, a complex three-dimensional structure, prior to the use of CAT, could only be viewed through dangerous surgery; however, now with CAT, they can be viewed by computer-aided, image-guided, endoscopic sinus surgery avoiding surgical pitfalls. The paper relates that there can be risks associated with CAT scans similar to the risks of conventional rays; however, doctors and other scientists believe that CAT scans provide enough valuable information to outweigh the associated risks of radiation.
Table of Contents
Brief History
Benefits for Computer Tomography How Does Computer Tomography Work?
Risks of Computerized Tomography Conclusion
From the Paper "During its brief history, advancements for computerized tomography have made great improvements in speed, patient comfort, and resolution. As scan times have gotten faster, more anatomy can be scanned more quickly and more efficiently. The extreme speed of scanning allows the elimination of artifacts from patient motion such as normal breathing. Faster scanning helps to eliminate artifacts from patient motion such as breathing or peristalsis. CT exams are even now quicker and more patient friendly than ever before. Tremendous research and development has been made to provide exceptional image quality for a diagnostic guarantee of the lowest possible x-ray dose."
Abstract The field of medical imaging has been in existence for over one hundred years, but new research and scientific breakthroughs have changed both its image and its role. This paper discusses how radiology is not only diagnostic, but is expanding to encompass curative techniques as well. The most common radiological investigation remains the conventional X-ray, but a wide range of new and more efficient modalities have also been available for the past several decades. This paper explains and defines the concept of conventional tomography.
From the Paper "Tomography is a method whereby selected planes in the patient's body can be examined with greater clarity and perspective. Logical other names for Conventional Tomography include body section radiography, planigraphy, laminography or stratigraphy. It differs from Conventional radiography in that a single plane is selected and kept in focus, as structures above and below are blurred and out of focus. This is done by moving the x-ray tube in one direction over the patient. The tube and film are linked and synchronized to move in opposite directions. This process uses the motion of the X-ray focal spot and image receptor to produce radiographs in which only one specific plane remains in sharp focus. Irrelevant details from other segments become blurred and thus insignificant. (Author not available, 2003)."
Abstract This paper discusses the issue of spaying and neutering pets as the best solution for the animal and the pet owner. The paper dispels common misconceptions regarding these procedures. The many benefits of spaying and neutering pets are outlined in the paper. These benefits are not only for the pet itself, but for society as a whole.
Outline
I. Introduction
A. Attention-Getter: Common Misconception
B. Subvert Common Misconceptions
II. Good for Society
A. Common Myths: Miracles of Birth, Purebred
B. Overpopulation: The Reality
III. Good for Pet A. Reduces Cancer
B. Doesn't Hurt Animal
IV. Good for You
A. Reduces Behavior Problems
B. Improves Community
V. Conclusion
From the Paper "In societal terms, many new pet owners today will respond from their guts, rather than their heads. They want their children to see Fido or Fifi to give birth, to see the miracle of life. But it might be equally important, one might add, that the child see the miracle of death-namely the not-so miraculous but equally real termination of so many unwanted animals in shelters across the nation. And the problem has such a simple solution. The only surefire solution to pet overpopulation is spaying and neutering the currently existing population. To those who want their pet to have a litter just to let their children see the miracle of life, as well, one vet points out that there are better ways to teach children about reproduction and responsibility--in fact, teaching children to care responsibly for family pets, including taking steps to reduce the population of unwanted pets, could be an equally important, if not the most important lesson about life that they can learn from animals."
