Abstract
This paper examines Carol Dweck's research on learning theories and forms of praise. The paper explains that Carol Dweck's research presents one of the earliest statements of a theory of "learned helplessness" as an impediment to learning in children. The paper looks at how Dr. Dweck asserts that praise along the lines of "Gee, you're really smart!" could actually teach a child learned helplessness, while praise phrased in terms of "Gee, you must have worked really hard to do that!" could encourage the children to develop creative thinking and problem-solving skills. The paper points out that Dr. Dweck adopts a tone that is clearly intended for a general audience, and especially for parents seeking to enhance their children's educational success.

From the Paper
"In current American culture, with its tremendous emphasis on success in education, Dr. Dweck's research has been widely popularized. Recently, a prominent article in New York relied heavily on her theories in presenting an account of a young boy whose IQ ranks him in the top 100th of the top 1% of all students. Yet this child, who had the trappings of a genius, did poorly in school. Reviewing Dweck's research and tracking her reasoning very closely, author Po Bronson explained how this research has shown that children are very sensitive to this sort of categorization, and very responsive to the "Gee, you must have worked very hard!" sort of praise, and very vulnerable to the "you're smart" mis-praise."

Tags:motivation, education, intelligence, expectations, smart

Abstract
This paper explains that the examination of a popular press article and another article from a scholarly journal reveals some fundamental differences in the ways in which the authors and the publications pursue the specific question of atavisms and the general matter of science. The author points out that, whereas the scholarly articles are cautious, highly specific and backed by applied research, the popular press discussion of atavisms is written with more attention to capturing and retaining the interest of the reader. The paper states that popular articles tend to do a better job of contextualizing the scientific data being presented and the implications of the research being conducted. The author concludes that both of these types of science writing have their place although each would benefit from incorporating techniques from the other.

From the Paper
"To counter this historical attitude, Le Page (2007) presents a series of recent studies and findings on the subject that indicate that evolutionary atavisms can take place, if only rarely and under certain circumstances. The examples used are always specific and detailed, and the author attempts to provide a human context for research with direct quotes from researchers and reactions from the public and scientific community. Once Le Page sets up this division, the conflict of the article between accepted biological wisdom and new, contrary evidence, he can start to present possible solutions."

Tags:detailed, context, human, empirical, incorporations

Abstract
The writer finds evidence of non-scientific writing in a popular scientific journal on the exploration of PTSD. The writer argues that it is not based on science but the most funded, popular diagnosis for war survivors and others, with top papers just ignoring very strong scientific materials to criticize PTSD.

Tags:ptsd, pop/formal sci, non scientific

Abstract
This paper describes that data structure is a way of storing data in a computer so that it can be used efficiently. The paper then goes on to describe how computers store the said data in terms of binary data presentations using Boolean logic. Furthermore, the paper describes data in the form of bits, along with converting binary data into decimals. Lastly, the paper talks about a computer's physical memory, which is based on one of two systems: (1) Random access memory (RAM), or (2) Read-only memory (ROM), and goes on to talk specifically about different coding systems.

From the Paper
"Data directly supported by CPU are called primary data type or machine data type computers. CPUs also process complex data type such as string, array, text files, databases, and image data such as MP3, jpeg, and mpeg. However, 64-bit and the 128-bit use different math functions in order to maintain portability. In each case, there is a signed and unsigned integer type associated with each. Excess notation is a format that is used to represent a signed integer and represents numbers in order and at the transition point; the high-order bit is set at zero. This represents the excess number. Positive numbers are above in order, negative below (Burd 78). Zero represents the excess identifier therefore; the excess 16 notation shows the value for zero is the bit pattern for 16 that is 10000."

Tags:RAM systems, data structure, software, boolean logic, memory

Abstract
This paper presents a history of the scientific method of thought and explains its purpose, as well as the steps involved in the scientific process. The paper further explains that the scientific method is very closely related to science, the process of human inquiry that is a major aspect of today's modern world and, that, despite the fact that this method appears simple and logical in its explanation, we should still recognize the complexity that is involved in gaining new knowledge that can be applied to other situations in the future.

From the Paper
"The term "science" denotes both a certain type of activity and its results (Wolman 1960, p. 497). Frequently, delineation is made between the actual "research" conducted and the resulting "system," which are both described as scientific. Scientific research is aimed at the discovery of truth and a scientific system includes propositions, statements or sentences that represent this truth (Wolman 1960, p. 497). Whitehead (1911 p. 157) noted that common sense is "a bad master for the evaluation of knowledge." Science revolves around the terms "systematic" and "controlled." Scientists systematically build theoretical structures and exam them for any existing inconsistencies. Further, in scientific research, the scientist attempts to delete variables that are potential causes of the effects and not those that are hypothesized to be causes."

Tags:methodology, collect, required, data, analyze, interpret, findings, conclusions, approach

Abstract
This paper reviews Thomas Kuhn's book about scientific advances entitled "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions." The paper focuses on several key elements and definitions in the work, with an emphasis on the concept of the scientific paradigm. The reviewer then discusses the role of paradigms in scientific revolutions, citing Kuhn's theory that revolutions appear when an old paradigm is substituted by a new one. Finally, the paper presents Kuhn's view of the past, present, evolution and future of science. The reviewer further describes Kuhn's view of the importance of crises in facilitating the evolution of science. The review concludes that Kuhn 's theory of paradigm and paradigm shifts gives a revolutionary description of scientific progress.

Outline:
Thomas Kuhn's Concept of Paradigm
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
The Past, Present, Evolution and Future of Science
Reference List

From the Paper
" First of all, Kuhn (1996) introduces the notion of "normal science", that is, according to him, the science that bases its research on previous research which is recognized as valid by a scientific community. (p.10) It is the structure of normal science that the book proposes to investigate. Furthermore, Kuhn (1996) argues that the most salient aspect of scientific evolution in time is the fact that science does not progress through leaps or through unrelated sets of investigations. On the contrary, scientific research is always conducted under a paradigm, or, to put it differently, all research is based on previous scientific data. The scientific paradigm can be defined as a certain common pattern in scientific research, or a certain set of accepted world views that are held as true for a period of time. The paradigm is thus a set of common beliefs about the world, based on past research. "

Tags:Thomas, Kuhn, The, Structure, of, Scientific, Revolutions, history, of, science, paradigms

Abstract
This paper summarizes the various date collection methods present for the outcome management in the Chronic Heart Failure (CHF) project. The author addresses the assessment method for each data collection instrument and describes the questions asked in each questionnaire.

Outline:
Minnesota Living with Heart Failure Questionnaire
Chronic Heart Failure Questionnaire
Kansas City Cardiomyopathy Questionnaire
Short Form 36
Short Form 12
Duke Health Profile
Primary Care Assessment Survey

From the Paper
"The questionnaire asks about frequent physical and psychological symptoms experienced by the CHF patient such as peripheral edema, insomnia, dyspnea, easy fatigability, depression and anxiety. Inquiries on the patient's social and physical functional capacities are also asked and rated by the patient. These include the patient's ability to walk at a certain distance, do household chores, effects of CHF on the patient's cognitive skills and travel habits. The patient is also asked to rate how his disease has affected his family. Pharmacologic and non-pharmacologic treatments are also considered."

Tags:questionnaires, data management, heart and vascular diseases

Abstract
Thomas S. Kuhn's structural account on the production of scientific knowledge constructs a generalized picture of the process by which a science is born and undergoes change and development. This paper explains that for Kuhn, science is a social system. It looks at how Kuhn analyzes the structure of scientific revolutions using several key concepts. He uses the term paradigm for an archetypal experiment or problem solution that implicitly tells scientists how to look at the world. This paper discusses how Kuhn's thesis about scientific authority utilizes the notion of normal science which he defines as science that uses a past achievement as a model and guide for formulating and solving new problems about the world which are based on paradigms. In addition, scientific revolutions occur when one paradigm is replaced by another. The writer also explains that as a result, paradigms play an important role in both normal science and scientific revolutions.

From the Paper
"The production of scientific knowledge undergoes six main steps. The first is a pre-paradigm stage in which the natural phenomena that later form the subject matter of a mature science are studied and explained from widely differing points of view. Next comes the emergence of a paradigm, embodied in the published works of one or more recognized scientists, defining and exemplifying the concepts and methods of research appropriate to the study of a certain class of natural phenomena, and serving as an inspiration to further research by its promise of success in explaining those phenomena. The third stage in the development of scientific knowledge is a period of normal science in which theories are explored and scientific puzzles are solved. A critical stage is the discovery of natural phenomena that violate the expectations governed by paradigms. In this stage, new theories are designed to explain these anomalous facts and then an abrupt transition to a new paradigm takes place in which a new conceptual and methodological framework arises which replaces the old. The final stage in the structure of scientific knowledge is the continuation of normal science within the new paradigm. This continues until the whole process repeats itself."

Tags:kuhn, philosophy, revolutions, science, scientific

Abstract
In this article, the writer explores the scientific method. The writer describes and defines the phrase scientific method. The writer then studies how the scientific method is used. In this paper, the writer outlines an example of use of the method in order to determine why the grass on one lawn is dead, while that on the neighbor's lawn is healthy.

From the Paper
"The scientific method is the process by which scientists collectively over time construct an accurate representation of the world. The first step is to observe and describe some phenomenon which is of interest. Next a hypothesis is developed to explain the phenomenon. In the third step, the hypothesis is used to make predictions about new phenomena or the results of these new phenomena. Fourthly, these predictions are tested by experimentation or further observation. Steps three and four are then repeated until consistent results are obtained. This often ... "

Tags:scientific method, hypothesis, theory

Abstract
This paper describes the steps involved in the scientific method and gives some examples of the concepts involved in the idea. It describes some experiments which used scientific method, and defines what is needed to make a hypothesis.

From the Paper
"The scientific method consists of a number of logical steps that are taken to verify a process situation or scientific fact. It begins by the development of axioms and assumptions which are usually made on the basis of observations by the scientists, e.g., Vesalius made the first accurate description of the arterial and venous systems of the human body based on first-hand observations he gained from dissection of a number of human bodies. "The accuracy of observations gains..."

Tags:scientific method, assumption, observation hypothesis, theory, principle, concept