Abstract
This paper explains that the examination of a popular press article and another article from a scholarly journal reveals some fundamental differences in the ways in which the authors and the publications pursue the specific question of atavisms and the general matter of science. The author points out that, whereas the scholarly articles are cautious, highly specific and backed by applied research, the popular press discussion of atavisms is written with more attention to capturing and retaining the interest of the reader. The paper states that popular articles tend to do a better job of contextualizing the scientific data being presented and the implications of the research being conducted. The author concludes that both of these types of science writing have their place although each would benefit from incorporating techniques from the other.

From the Paper
"To counter this historical attitude, Le Page (2007) presents a series of recent studies and findings on the subject that indicate that evolutionary atavisms can take place, if only rarely and under certain circumstances. The examples used are always specific and detailed, and the author attempts to provide a human context for research with direct quotes from researchers and reactions from the public and scientific community. Once Le Page sets up this division, the conflict of the article between accepted biological wisdom and new, contrary evidence, he can start to present possible solutions."

Tags:detailed, context, human, empirical, incorporations

Abstract
The writer finds evidence of non-scientific writing in a popular scientific journal on the exploration of PTSD. The writer argues that it is not based on science but the most funded, popular diagnosis for war survivors and others, with top papers just ignoring very strong scientific materials to criticize PTSD.

Tags:ptsd, pop/formal sci, non scientific

Abstract
This paper discusses the substantial stylistic differences between research writing and writing for a non-scholarly audience. According to the paper, the most obvious difference is that the former can be very difficult to read, but the latter are almost always relatively easy to read.

From the Paper
"There are substantial stylistic differences between research writing and writing for a non-scholarly audience. This reflects the fact that they are written for very different audiences - the former for scholars and researchers, and the latter for the broader public. The most obvious difference is that the former can be very difficult to read, but the latter are almost always relatively easy to read. However, there are many subtler stylistic differences as well. This essay examines the differences between the two styles of writing, by comparing Carol S. Dweck's research article entitled "The Role of Expectations and Attributions in the..."

Tags:academic, popular, compare

Abstract
This paper reviews Thomas Kuhn's book about scientific advances entitled "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions." The paper focuses on several key elements and definitions in the work, with an emphasis on the concept of the scientific paradigm. The reviewer then discusses the role of paradigms in scientific revolutions, citing Kuhn's theory that revolutions appear when an old paradigm is substituted by a new one. Finally, the paper presents Kuhn's view of the past, present, evolution and future of science. The reviewer further describes Kuhn's view of the importance of crises in facilitating the evolution of science. The review concludes that Kuhn 's theory of paradigm and paradigm shifts gives a revolutionary description of scientific progress.

Outline:
Thomas Kuhn's Concept of Paradigm
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
The Past, Present, Evolution and Future of Science
Reference List

From the Paper
" First of all, Kuhn (1996) introduces the notion of "normal science", that is, according to him, the science that bases its research on previous research which is recognized as valid by a scientific community. (p.10) It is the structure of normal science that the book proposes to investigate. Furthermore, Kuhn (1996) argues that the most salient aspect of scientific evolution in time is the fact that science does not progress through leaps or through unrelated sets of investigations. On the contrary, scientific research is always conducted under a paradigm, or, to put it differently, all research is based on previous scientific data. The scientific paradigm can be defined as a certain common pattern in scientific research, or a certain set of accepted world views that are held as true for a period of time. The paradigm is thus a set of common beliefs about the world, based on past research. "

Tags:Thomas, Kuhn, The, Structure, of, Scientific, Revolutions, history, of, science, paradigms

Abstract
Thomas S. Kuhn's structural account on the production of scientific knowledge constructs a generalized picture of the process by which a science is born and undergoes change and development. This paper explains that for Kuhn, science is a social system. It looks at how Kuhn analyzes the structure of scientific revolutions using several key concepts. He uses the term paradigm for an archetypal experiment or problem solution that implicitly tells scientists how to look at the world. This paper discusses how Kuhn's thesis about scientific authority utilizes the notion of normal science which he defines as science that uses a past achievement as a model and guide for formulating and solving new problems about the world which are based on paradigms. In addition, scientific revolutions occur when one paradigm is replaced by another. The writer also explains that as a result, paradigms play an important role in both normal science and scientific revolutions.

From the Paper
"The production of scientific knowledge undergoes six main steps. The first is a pre-paradigm stage in which the natural phenomena that later form the subject matter of a mature science are studied and explained from widely differing points of view. Next comes the emergence of a paradigm, embodied in the published works of one or more recognized scientists, defining and exemplifying the concepts and methods of research appropriate to the study of a certain class of natural phenomena, and serving as an inspiration to further research by its promise of success in explaining those phenomena. The third stage in the development of scientific knowledge is a period of normal science in which theories are explored and scientific puzzles are solved. A critical stage is the discovery of natural phenomena that violate the expectations governed by paradigms. In this stage, new theories are designed to explain these anomalous facts and then an abrupt transition to a new paradigm takes place in which a new conceptual and methodological framework arises which replaces the old. The final stage in the structure of scientific knowledge is the continuation of normal science within the new paradigm. This continues until the whole process repeats itself."

Tags:kuhn, philosophy, revolutions, science, scientific

Abstract
This paper provides a comparison and contrast of scientific laws and scientific generalizations and argues that there is mutuality in the relationship between these two phenomena, but the former are proven scientifically while the latter are used as a rule-of-thumb to arrive at such truths.

From the Paper
"Human nature follows natural processes in its use of reason to arrive at generalizations or truths. As Crotty argues; "Actions seen as wrongful in terms of natural law are considered to be wrong by their very nature, an action considered wrongful in terms of positive law is wrong because it has been forbidden by civil or criminal law and legislation." Without generalizations, however, no laws could be determined in science. Scientific generalizations and scientific laws are nevertheless distinct. Scientific laws are closely aligned with natural..."

Tags:scientific methods, Weber, sociology, knowledge, truth, proof, statistics, math

Abstract
In this article, the writer explores the scientific method. The writer describes and defines the phrase scientific method. The writer then studies how the scientific method is used. In this paper, the writer outlines an example of use of the method in order to determine why the grass on one lawn is dead, while that on the neighbor's lawn is healthy.

From the Paper
"The scientific method is the process by which scientists collectively over time construct an accurate representation of the world. The first step is to observe and describe some phenomenon which is of interest. Next a hypothesis is developed to explain the phenomenon. In the third step, the hypothesis is used to make predictions about new phenomena or the results of these new phenomena. Fourthly, these predictions are tested by experimentation or further observation. Steps three and four are then repeated until consistent results are obtained. This often ... "

Tags:scientific method, hypothesis, theory

Abstract
This paper describes the steps involved in the scientific method and gives some examples of the concepts involved in the idea. It describes some experiments which used scientific method, and defines what is needed to make a hypothesis.

From the Paper
"The scientific method consists of a number of logical steps that are taken to verify a process situation or scientific fact. It begins by the development of axioms and assumptions which are usually made on the basis of observations by the scientists, e.g., Vesalius made the first accurate description of the arterial and venous systems of the human body based on first-hand observations he gained from dissection of a number of human bodies. "The accuracy of observations gains..."

Tags:scientific method, assumption, observation hypothesis, theory, principle, concept

Abstract
This paper provides an overview of the religious philosophies and teachings of Scholasticism and Humanism, followed by a discussion of the various permutations these have caused since their inception. It provides an analysis of how the scientific method emerged from this environment and a description of real-world applications of these principles in the classroom today. This is followed by a summary of the research in the conclusion. Several graphics are also provided.

Outline
Introduction
Review and Discussion
The History of Discovery
A. Physics
B. Astronomy
C. Chemistry
The Rise of Scientific Experimentation and Famous Experiments
A. Galileo
B. Newton
Methodology
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Religious Philosophies and Teachings. Scholasticism is the philosophic and theological movement that attempted to use natural human reason, in particular, the philosophy and science of Aristotle, to understand the supernatural content of Christian revelation. It was dominant in the medieval Christian schools and universities of Europe from about the middle of the 11th century to about the middle of the 15th century. The ultimate ideal of the movement was to integrate into an ordered system both the natural wisdom of Greece and Rome and the religious wisdom of Christianity."

Tags:aquinas, aristotelianism, augustine, curie, galileo, hobbes, humanism, isaac, kepler, locke, mendeleyev, method, newton, periodic, scholasticism, scientific, summa, table, theologiae

Abstract
The author of this paper argues that we create paradigms to understand our world. Such paradigms have popularly manifested themselves in the form of science and religion. Although objectivity is usually associated with the scientific paradigm, the paper argues that scientific paradigms use symbols such as equations to express their theories and seek validation through the approval of other scholars, which are subjective practices. The author uses the shifting paradigms in the field of psychology over time to demonstrate subjectivity in a scientific field. Similarly, religion uses a consensus of shared mystical experiences and strong exemplars of faith to explain the world. Ultimately, the paper argues that, while our world is subjective, we desperately seek objectivity.

From the Paper
"In our cultures, we see the tension between objective and subjective reality recreated in our own worldview paradigms: science and religion. Traditionally, those who crave objectivity have gravitated toward scientific explanations for the world and its inhabitants (such as evolution), while those who are more embracing of a subjective reality are associated with the religious paradigm. However, as Mundy's reading Comparison and contrast of scientific and religious paradigms and their use illustrates, the two disciplines may be more alike than they care to admit, treading an uneasy line between the world of the objective and the world of the subjective."

Tags:reality, science, paradigm, perception, religion