Abstract This paper explains that the examination of a popular press article and another article from a scholarly journal reveals some fundamental differences in the ways in which the authors and the publications pursue the specific question of atavisms and the general matter of science. The author points out that, whereas the scholarly articles are cautious, highly specific and backed by applied research, the popular press discussion of atavisms is written with more attention to capturing and retaining the interest of the reader. The paper states that popular articles tend to do a better job of contextualizing the scientific data being presented and the implications of the research being conducted. The author concludes that both of these types of science writing have their place although each would benefit from incorporating techniques from the other.
From the Paper "To counter this historical attitude, Le Page (2007) presents a series of recent studies and findings on the subject that indicate that evolutionary atavisms can take place, if only rarely and under certain circumstances. The examples used are always specific and detailed, and the author attempts to provide a human context for research with direct quotes from researchers and reactions from the public and scientific community. Once Le Page sets up this division, the conflict of the article between accepted biological wisdom and new, contrary evidence, he can start to present possible solutions."
A comparison between research writing and writing aimed at non-scholarly audiences, through a close examination of articles by Carol S. Dweck and John O'Sullivan.
Abstract This paper examines the differences between research writing and writing for a non-scholarly audience. The paper points out that the most obvious difference is that the former can be very difficult to read, but the latter is almost always relatively easy to read. However, there are many subtler stylistic differences as well. This essay examines the differences between the two styles of writing, by comparing Carol S. Dweck's research article entitled "The Role of Expectations and Attributions in the Alleviation of Learned Helplessness" with her popular article "Caution - Praise Can Be Dangerous", and with John O'Sullivan's popular article "Put Gay Marriage to 'Covenant' Test". To conclude, the paper examines the reliability of academic versus popular articles. The paper maintains that the former are peer-reviewed, making them likely to be more trustworthy, while popular articles are not necessarily trustworthy.
From the Paper "One sometimes comes across articles written by the same authors, but written in different styles in order to suit the kind of article being written. Thus, a researcher may write a research article for a scholarly publication, and also write articles for popular audiences. In this way, the researcher is enabled to communicate with a much broader audience. Thus, a researcher who believes her information is very important may make use of the popular media to communicate what she knows. Dweck is an example of such a researcher/author - she is able to write very competently for both audiences. This shows that she clearly has a finely nuanced comprehension of the different stylistic devices employed in the two different kinds of publications. It also affords the opportunity of comparing her writing style in the two different styles of writing."
Abstract This paper reviews Thomas Kuhn's book about scientific advances entitled "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions." The paper focuses on several key elements and definitions in the work, with an emphasis on the concept of the scientific paradigm. The reviewer then discusses the role of paradigms in scientific revolutions, citing Kuhn's theory that revolutions appear when an old paradigm is substituted by a new one. Finally, the paper presents Kuhn's view of the past, present, evolution and future of science. The reviewer further describes Kuhn's view of the importance of crises in facilitating the evolution of science. The review concludes that Kuhn 's theory of paradigm and paradigm shifts gives a revolutionary description of scientific progress.
Outline:
Thomas Kuhn's Concept of Paradigm
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
The Past, Present, Evolution and Future of Science
Reference List
From the Paper " First of all, Kuhn (1996) introduces the notion of "normal science", that is, according to him, the science that bases its research on previous research which is recognized as valid by a scientific community. (p.10) It is the structure of normal science that the book proposes to investigate. Furthermore, Kuhn (1996) argues that the most salient aspect of scientific evolution in time is the fact that science does not progress through leaps or through unrelated sets of investigations. On the contrary, scientific research is always conducted under a paradigm, or, to put it differently, all research is based on previous scientific data. The scientific paradigm can be defined as a certain common pattern in scientific research, or a certain set of accepted world views that are held as true for a period of time. The paradigm is thus a set of common beliefs about the world, based on past research. "
Abstract Thomas S. Kuhn's structural account on the production of scientific knowledge constructs a generalized picture of the process by which a science is born and undergoes change and development. This paper explains that for Kuhn, science is a social system. It looks at how Kuhn analyzes the structure of scientific revolutions using several key concepts. He uses the term paradigm for an archetypal experiment or problem solution that implicitly tells scientists how to look at the world. This paper discusses how Kuhn's thesis about scientific authority utilizes the notion of normal science which he defines as science that uses a past achievement as a model and guide for formulating and solving new problems about the world which are based on paradigms. In addition, scientific revolutions occur when one paradigm is replaced by another. The writer also explains that as a result, paradigms play an important role in both normal science and scientific revolutions.
From the Paper "The production of scientific knowledge undergoes six main steps. The first is a pre-paradigm stage in which the natural phenomena that later form the subject matter of a mature science are studied and explained from widely differing points of view. Next comes the emergence of a paradigm, embodied in the published works of one or more recognized scientists, defining and exemplifying the concepts and methods of research appropriate to the study of a certain class of natural phenomena, and serving as an inspiration to further research by its promise of success in explaining those phenomena. The third stage in the development of scientific knowledge is a period of normal science in which theories are explored and scientific puzzles are solved. A critical stage is the discovery of natural phenomena that violate the expectations governed by paradigms. In this stage, new theories are designed to explain these anomalous facts and then an abrupt transition to a new paradigm takes place in which a new conceptual and methodological framework arises which replaces the old. The final stage in the structure of scientific knowledge is the continuation of normal science within the new paradigm. This continues until the whole process repeats itself."
Abstract This paper written from the writer's personal point of view discusses the powerful, yet difficult to understand, speech given by Emerson in which the American author and philosopher attempts to inspire America's youth. This paper details the main points in Emerson's speech which stresses the importance of educators and scholars and the role that they play in academia. The writer attempts to analyze the messages and metaphors used by Emerson in this particular work of writing. The writer contends and explains that while this speech is considered an outstanding piece of literature the style of writing used by Emerson is complicated and the metaphors are confusing. This paper focuses on various quotes from the actual text while pondering the author's primary intent.
From the Paper "In this oration, he starts off with describing that Man was divided into men to help himself just as the hand was divided into fingers. This is quite confusing and contrary to many religious doctrines. Further Emerson portrays Man as something like God. He states that Man is the master of all trades and professions and only when Man was divided into men, "these functions are parceled out to individuals". He talks about Man being perfect and the men into who Man was divided to be full of flaws. Although I do agree that men have flaws and can never be perfect, the concept of Man whom he portrays nothing less than God is confusing and the point that Emerson wishes to convey by stating this is not understood by me. What I did not understand about his essay further on was when he talks about a school-boy and a Root and refers to it as being the "soul of his soul". To me the concept of a soul having a soul is beyond my understanding of the entire concept of soul. Emerson insists that books written by men are only written by men and not Man hence people should not follow them and use them as a source of inspiration."
Abstract This paper describes the steps involved in the scientific method and gives some examples of the concepts involved in the idea. It describes some experiments which used scientific method, and defines what is needed to make a hypothesis.
From the Paper "The scientific method consists of a number of logical steps that are taken to verify a process situation or scientific fact. It begins by the development of axioms and assumptions which are usually made on the basis of observations by the scientists, e.g., Vesalius made the first accurate description of the arterial and venous systems of the human body based on first-hand observations he gained from dissection of a number of human bodies. "The accuracy of observations gains..."
Abstract In this article, the writer explores the scientific method. The writer describes and defines the phrase scientific method. The writer then studies how the scientific method is used. In this paper, the writer outlines an example of use of the method in order to determine why the grass on one lawn is dead, while that on the neighbor's lawn is healthy.
From the Paper "The scientific method is the process by which scientists collectively over time construct an accurate representation of the world. The first step is to observe and describe some phenomenon which is of interest. Next a hypothesis is developed to explain the phenomenon. In the third step, the hypothesis is used to make predictions about new phenomena or the results of these new phenomena. Fourthly, these predictions are tested by experimentation or further observation. Steps three and four are then repeated until consistent results are obtained. This often ... "
Abstract This paper discusses whether or not Americans today are scientifically illiterate. The author makes comparisons to other countries, and discusses what a scientifically aware person should be able to understand.
From the Paper "The question about whether science education in America is adequate enough has been raised over the past few decades. People claim that they are scientifically aware and are quite capable of irrational thinking. On the other hand, surveys have been conducted to show that most people are, in fact, ?scientifically illiterate.? One would expect that if a nation truly was scientifically aware, than at least half the population would be able to correctly answer simple problems about the Earth and the elements within this planet. However, according to a new survey conducted by the National Science Foundation, ?only about 23 percent of those adults understand the nature of scientific inquiry well enough to make informed judgments about those science stories.?
Tags: literate, scientifically, awareness, education, science, knowledge, information, population, society
Abstract This paper provides an overview of the religious philosophies and teachings of Scholasticism and Humanism, followed by a discussion of the various permutations these have caused since their inception. It provides an analysis of how the scientific method emerged from this environment and a description of real-world applications of these principles in the classroom today. This is followed by a summary of the research in the conclusion. Several graphics are also provided.
Outline
Introduction
Review and Discussion
The History of Discovery
A. Physics
B. Astronomy
C. Chemistry
The Rise of Scientific Experimentation and Famous Experiments
A. Galileo
B. Newton
Methodology
Conclusion
From the Paper "Religious Philosophies and Teachings. Scholasticism is the philosophic and theological movement that attempted to use natural human reason, in particular, the philosophy and science of Aristotle, to understand the supernatural content of Christian revelation. It was dominant in the medieval Christian schools and universities of Europe from about the middle of the 11th century to about the middle of the 15th century. The ultimate ideal of the movement was to integrate into an ordered system both the natural wisdom of Greece and Rome and the religious wisdom of Christianity."
Abstract This paper summarizes the steps of the scientific method. In this article, the writer offers an example of scientific method through the discussion of an experiment conducted using such method. In the second part, the paper explains the differences between living and non living things. The writer also discusses why some people believe that fire is a living thing. The writer concludes by explaining why fire is not living.
From the Paper "The scientific method is a method of analyzing a scientific problem in a systematic way. In this method the scientist does not make assumptions, leap to conclusions, or make decisions based on feeling. This method is strictly based on observable facts. The five basic steps to the scientific method are research problem hypothesis problem, experimentation and project conclusion. To initiate an investigation, the scientist first selects a project topic to investigate. Then he researches it by collecting information on it from a variety of sources ... "
Tags: biology, scientific method, living things, nonliving things, fire
Abstract This paper reviews a case whereby the scientific method is used to solve a problem with a garden lawn. According to the paper, the lawn is short, brown, dry, and dead, while the neighbor's lawn is lush, tall, green, alive, and healthy. The first application of the scientific method raises the question "Why is the lawn dead while the neighbour's is alive?".
Abstract This paper examines the link between Leonardo da Vinci's art and the Scientific Revolution, discussing various factors such as the mathematization of nature, the study of perspective, and the golden ratio. Figures of related works are included.
From the Paper "Art and science have long been presumed to be polar opposites, the one fueled by fantasy and creativity and the other by the mathematics and natural laws that are viewed as the other end of the spectrum. This is an incomplete and inaccurate perception, however. Art and science are, in fact, integrally connected and their premises are closely allied. The mathematical systems that science is based on are as much a part of art as of science, although art is..."
Tags:Scientific Revolution, Leonardo da Vinci, art, inventions, perspective, mathematization of nature, golden ratio, Phi
Abstract This paper explains the basic concepts behind the Scientific Principles of Business Management. The author defines the terms, discusses its effects on the workers and productivity and relates the perceived worker motivations used in this model. The paper contrasts this model of management with some of the concepts behind the Behavioral or Human Resources concept of management.
From the Paper "Frederick Winslow Taylor created the Scientific Principles of Business Management. His idea was to redesign the workers' role in business by modeling it on the design of a machine. In Taylor's format for business organization, workers should mimic the machine parts, to be silent and operating without question. Workers were to be inexpensive and easily replaced or interchangeable as well (Wertheim, par. 6). He determined that there were four principles by which workers should operate: specialization, unity of command, span of control, and organization by purpose. This paper discusses his principles of scientific management, with a focus on how it affected workers and their productivity. The discussion includes the perception of how this form of management motivates workers in their job performance. Finally, it contrasts with the Behavioral Model of management."
A discussion about the relationship between scientific management and German modernist art and how this relationship impacted German graphic art in a manner that continues today.
1,575 words (approx. 6.3 pages), 7 sources, 2006, $ 62.95
Abstract The relationship between scientific management and German modernist art and architecture has often been overlooked - which is unfortunate insofar as the former has greatly impacted the latter and provided it with some of its most conspicuous and enduring features. With this in mind, this paper explores this link by looking at examples of Taylorist sensibility in four noteworthy German designers; this paper also touches briefly upon how the works of these individuals - particularly Margarete Schutte-Lihotzky - reflected the dominant rationalist and modernist traits of the epoch and, in effect, set about creating a legacy for German graphic and architectural design which has persisted the present age.
Abstract This paper explores controversial scientific research and the ethical questions it often raises. The paper itself is a brief discussion of the moral considerations some feel are raised by computer-assisted research. The author proposes that controversial research should not be stopped, but rather supervised by an expert, especially when the research has the capability of improving life. The author concludes, however, that finding an expert supervisor, whose opinions would be respected by opposing sides, would be the ultimate challenge.
From the Paper " An even better question would be why stop this research in the first place? One of the reasons why curtailing this type of research should be done would be if it was against the law, short-sighted that said law would be, or not. In an effort to stop ongoing research in this field of study from getting to "out of hand", laws banning this type of research may be created and then implemented. The result(s) of such a law, or laws, would be to force the doctor(s) conducting the research to go overseas to conduct the research where such laws would not be in effect."
