Abstract
This paper talks about Polynesian culture and looks at the history of Polynesian tattooing as an important part of the Polynesian culture. The paper explains how the purposes of the tattooing relate to the rank and class of people. The paper addresses the role of tattooing, history of men's and women's tattooing, and the future of Polynesian tattooing.

From the Paper
""Your neck may break, the fau tree may burst, but my tattooing is indestructible. It is an everlasting gem that you take into your grave" ("History of Tattoo"). The history of Polynesian tattooing dates back into history that has been an important part of the Polynesian culture. Studying the history of Polynesian tattooing should include the role of tattooing, history of men's and women's tattooing, and the future of Polynesian tattooing. The history of Polynesian tattooing begins over 2,000 years ago. During the 19th century, missionaries banned the tattooing because they felt it..."

Tags:tattooing, polynesian, culture

Abstract
The paper examines some of the basic cultural forces that drove the original ta moko designs. The writer further discusses its recent resurgence among modern Maori. It explains the highly ritualized process of traditional ta moko incisions. The paper suggests that the use of ta moko among the Maori can be explained in terms of a need to establish a strong cultural marker.

From the Paper
"The Maori Ta Moko: Historical and Cultural Development
Few cultural practices possess the immediate recognition and visual authority of the Maori ta moko. The ta moko is the unique and elaborate body tattoos that Maori traditionally receive. Both men and women receive the tattoos, notably on their faces where the intricate patterns can be quite striking and even intimidating."

Tags:ritualized, process, cultural, marker, anthropology

Abstract
This paper defines and discusses this unique culture of sailing the oceans and examines the history of this practice. It explores how the skills and heritage of these seafaring people, that laid dormant for generations, is experiencing a revival amid the Polynesians of today, giving them pride and purpose in the ancient arts and culture of their ancestors.

From the Paper
"The Pacific Ocean is the earth's largest geographic feature, occupying more than one third the surface of the globe, an area greater than all the landmasses put together. The some 25,000 islands, roughly 1.6 million square kilometers, are scattered about a sea area of more than 88 million square kilometers, stretching 16,000 kilometers along the equator and 15,000 kilometers from the Bering Strait to the Antarctic Circle (Kiste 1991). More than one half of the world's islands are found in the Pacific Ocean. These islands comprise an area known as Polynesia, which means "many islands," and is geographically the largest of the Pacific's cultural areas, with distances between the island groups the greatest (Kiste 1991). An imaginary triangle from Hawaii in the north to the southeast at Easter Island then to New Zealand in the southwest defines Polynesia. The Pacific Ocean is so vast that even with some 25,000 islands dotting its waters, the majority of the area is empty. In fact, if Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, had missed Guam in 1521, he would have believed that there was no human inhabitants in the entire region (Kiste 1991). Today, "the combined exclusive economic zones of the countries in the region is approximately 30 million square kilometers, an area almost the size of Africa or three times the size of the continental United States" (Zurick 1995)."

Tags:ocean, pacific, explorer

Abstract
The paper is an examination of the Maori culture as described in the book "Counterpoint in Maori Culture" by Hanson and Hanson. The writer declares that he chose this book because it was, in his opinion, the comprehensive examination of the Maori culture available which left little of classic Maori culture uncovered. The author of the paper discusses and examines aspects of Maori culture as they are presented in the book and then attempts to explain and evaluate the purpose of the book's authors and methods used by them in their research.

From the Paper
"The research for Counterpoint in Maori Culture was conducted from 1976 to 1977 in New Zealand by the authors. It was an interesting and eventful time in United States history; supposedly the "summer of fun" even though there were serious and grievous incidences going on all over the world. Pro-Palestinian terrorists hijacked a Paris-bound Air France A-300 Airbus over Greece June 27. But it wasn't all bad, Andy Warhol was in full stride as he put out skull and portrait of Andy, two iconic artworks. Jimmy Carter beat Ford in the US Presidential race and pardoned all Vietnam War draft dodgers in his first day of office. I'm unclear as to how these and many other events affected the authors. I don't get the impression that they had any effect whatsoever, especially since the book doesn't incorporate either of the two authors personalities into the work."

Tags:culture, new zealand, anthropology polynesians samoan tahitian cook ethnography

Abstract
This paper examines the Native American tribe of Southern California, the Chumash, one of the few New World peoples who regularly navigated the ocean. The paper points out that they built plank canoes, unlike most other North American native tribes whose canoes were of an unsophisticated hollowed-out tree trunk design. Only Polynesian seafarers from the distant South Pacific were thought to use similar plank boats to explore and colonize the various islands of the Pacific over a thousand or more years ago. The paper draws a possible connection between the two peoples according to both linguistic and archaeological evidence. From a purely linguistic standpoint, the Chumash word for plank canoe, "tomolo", may be derived from the Polynesian word "tumu-raa'au", referring to the wooden plank boats used by Polynesian explorers. The paper concludes that these findings regarding the Chumash wood plank canoe may open the door to seeing Native American culture in a whole new light, and even call into question old orthodoxies about migration patterns.

From the Paper
"Due to the vast size of the area that eventually became known as California, there were at one time or another dozens of small Native American tribes who inhabited the region, differing widely in language, culture and lifestyle, due to the great variety of environmental conditions they found themselves in (desert, mountain, seacoast, etc.) The Chumash are a Native American tribe who historically made their home along the southern coastal regions of California, stretching roughly from the vicinity of what is now Santa Barbara in the north down to Ventura in the south, but (to a lesser degree) even extending as far south as what is now Malibu ("Chumash.") They also lived on the three largest of the Channel Islands: Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, and San Miguel. The Channel Islands, located about 20 miles off the coast near present day Santa Barbara, are the largest offshore islands on the West Coast of North America ("Channel Islands.") This offshore presence was unique to the Chumash among California Indian tribes and will have a central place in the subsequent examination of their seafaring abilities and possible trans-Pacific origins."

Tags:Polynesia, canoe, tomolo, plank, boat

Abstract
This paper discusses how Indonesian culture is an amalgam of the traditions of many civilizations and religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam, Southeast Asian, Polynesian, Chinese, Arabic, and Dutch. It looks at how, since the country achieved its independence from the Dutch colonialist rule in 1945, the Indonesian culture has been influenced by the political and economic conditions prevailing in the country. It also examines some notable Indonesian customs, as well as the psychographics of the Indonesian people.

From the Paper
"Although most Indonesians are Muslim, there are various ethnic divisions that make the country a multi-cultural country. For example 45% of the population is Javanese, while 14% are Sudanese 14%, 7% Madurese, and 8% "coastal Malays."(Forbes, 2003) There is also a marked rural/ urban division, with the urbanized middle class influenced by the Western culture but also bitter at the perceived "betrayal" by institutions such as the IMF (perceived to be controlled by the US) at not having helped the country out of its predicament at the time of a major economic crisis in 1997. The attitude is a reflection of the "collectivism" of the Indonesian people."

Tags:islam, psychographics, hinduism, buddhism

Abstract
This paper gives an overview and description of the Chumash, a Native tribe who inhabited a region of the southern California coast. The paper describes this group's most unique feature as being that they were a seafaring culture. The paper also cites speculation that this seafaring technique connects them with the Polynesians, who may have first explored and settled the West coast of North America.

From the Paper
"The Chumash are a Native tribe who inhabited a region of the southern California coast, their furthest extent stretching from what is now Santa Barbara in the north to Malibu in the south, but largely concentrated between Santa Barbara to Ventura. They also inhabited the nearby Channel Islands just off the coast, and so were one of the few California tribes with a substantial offshore presence. At one time numbering as many as 10,000, they dwindled down to just a few hundred until growing to their present estimated numbers of about 5000. Their name means makers of shell bead money, but what is most unique about..."

Tags:chumash, polynesian, california

Abstract
This paper discusses the people, region, homes, culture, religion, and images that make up the interesting historical account of the Hawaiian and Sandwich Islands. The paper elaborates on the many religious and cultural customs unique to the inhabitants of these islands.

From the Paper
"The history of the Hawaiian and Sandwich Islands during the 18th century is as colorful and unique as the flowers that are grown in the region. On December 23, 1826, a treaty between the United States of America and the King of the Sandwich Islands was signed at Honolulu and entered into force. The people who inhabited the islands, took their livelihood out of the ocean waters, and thrived upon their religion and customs continue to romance and mystify the people of today's hurried society."

Tags:polynesian, honolulu, aikapu, james, cook

Abstract
The paper relates that the art of tattoo has been practiced around the world for thousands of years, especially in the Polynesian islands. The paper then looks at tattooing today and discusses how, although they are more elaborate, colorful and creative than early tattoos, they serve the same purposes of art, spirituality and the mark of courage and overcoming pain. The paper concludes that while their popularity may wane again, it is clear these elaborate and colorful designs will never simply fade away.

From the Paper
"While there were some ancient tribes in Europe who practiced tattooing, the practice really died out there, but it was always strong in Polynesia. Samoan tattoo artists have been living and working on the island for over 2000 years, and the art spread to other island nations, such as Hawaii and New Zealand, and then spread around the world when European explorers discovered the art. Asian cultures also practiced tattoo, so the practice has existed throughout the world, but never at the rate or popularity that it exists today."

Tags:designs, skin, culture, pain, courage

Abstract
This paper reviews and discusses the origin of tattoos. According to the paper, the history of tattoos dates back some five thousand years. The paper reports that the earliest inhabitants of Tahiti were Polynesians and it is believed that it was these Polynesians that brought the art of tattooing to the Islands. According to the paper, this art form was used to express personality and family identity.

From the Paper
"The earliest inhabitants of Tahiti were Polynesians who came there from Asia centuries ago. The first European to the island was British sea captain Samuel Wallis in 1767, who claimed it for Britain, followed a year later by French navigator Louis Antoine de Bougainville, who claimed it for France (Tahiti 1996). It became a French protectorate in 1842, a French colony in 1880, and in 1946, France declared Tahiti and the other islands of French Polynesia to be French overseas territory. Today it remains under French rule (Tahiti 1996)."
"No one knows for certain, but it is most likely that the art of Polynesian tattooing was brought to the islands by the migrant population from Asia. Because there was no written language in Polynesian culture, this art form was sued to express personality and family identity (History 2006). Tattoos were used to indicate an individual's status in society, such as sexual maturity, genealogy and rank within society, thus the majority of all ancient Polynesians were tattooed (History 2006). "

Tags:scars, maturity, symbol, language, art, Polynesian, culture, rite, Ta'aroa