Abstract This paper describes the continental drift and platetectonictheories and traces their history, discusses the key players who were involved in developing the theories and examines the current state of scientific knowledge about Earth's geology and paleontology.
From the Paper "The idea that the earth's continents have drifted has a long history. As long ago as 1596 the Dutch map maker Abraham Ortelius in his work Thesaurus Geographicus Ortelius suggested that the Americas were "torn away from Europe and Africa . . . by earthquakes and floods." He had been the first (and certainly not the last) to notice the apparent "jig-saw" fit of the bulge of eastern South America into the bight of Africa. (Kious and Tilling, 1999) In around 1850 A.D., a French scientist Antonio Snider-Pellegrini, while researching the similarity of the fossil plants and coal deposits in North American and European and concluded that the phenomenon could only be explained if the two continents had once been connected. In 1908 Frank B. Taylor of the United States invoked the notion of continental collision to explain the formation of some of the world's mountain ranges."
Abstract This paper explains that platetectonics is one of the most important discoveries in science and geology because it explains why the continents share many similarities, which could not be explained if they had always existed apart and it explains why, even today, the surface of the earth is constantly shifting, rearranging and moving. The author points out that an important discovery, which ultimately led scientists to believe the theory of platetectonics was correct, was the discovery of seafloor spreading. The paper relates that platetectonics and the continual shifting it produces can create many changes in the surface of the earth from weather to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
From the Paper "Several theories of geologic process and scientific discovery helped lead to the discovery of plate tectonics in the 1920s, and the theory was generally accepted by the 1950s. The plate tectonic theory evolved from earlier theories, beginning with continental drift. The first time continental drift was mentioned was in 1908, by an American named Frank Bursey Taylor. However, the theory really did not gain acceptance until 1912 when German meteorologist and geophysicist Alfred Wegener detailed the theory and gave it more basis in fact. The continental drift theory believes that between 275 and 175 million years ago, all the continents were joined together in one land mass. Later, this massive continent broke apart into two gigantic landmasses in the north and south, those continents further divided about 100 million years ago into more currently recognizable shapes, and they began to drift apart during this time, too."
An examination of the Gaia theory which maintains that soon after the formation of life, organisms began to change the environment, as well as adapt to this environment.
1,237 words (approx. 4.9 pages), 6 sources, 2001, $ 42.95
Abstract Gaia and the platetectonics; is the Earth alive?
This paper examines the Gaia theory that has emerged concerning the earth, its formation, and the living and non living creatures that adorn it. The paper also examines platetectonics, living organisms, formation of water, etc.
Tags: earthquakes, plate, tectonics, earth, gaia, water
Abstract This paper help explains how PlateTectonics has caused changes in continental landmasses through geological occurrences. It presents the main controversy in the Platetectonictheory - whether the movement of the plates has displaced landmass across the continents or not and whether it is the sole reason for the change of the landmass or it is through atmospheric influence.
From the Paper "Thousands of years ago the earth's surface has been hypothesized as one big landmass. The Earth's surface has been constant motion. ?Fragmented into giant sheets of solid rock that glide atop a layer of hotter, more pliable material, the globe's appearance is forever changing.? [Cowen, 1999] . These plates are semi rigid, floated on flow of mantle. The plates measured around 50 miles, thickness of 25 miles on land and 4 miles thick under the oceans. Their movement was categorized by an average of a few inches a year. Even today, geologists and tectonicists hypothesize the earth to continue this movement in similar slow manner, even if we do not notice it. The plates? movement is called the Plate Tectonic Theory, a theory presented in 1912 but upheld in 1960 . "
Abstract The writer of this paper details the exploration of the ocean floor which began in the 1940s and aided scientists in developing the theory of platetectonics. This paper explores how the work of researchers like Albert Wegener and James Hutton and the study of platetectonics helped predict with some degree of accuracy where and when an earthquake will strike as well as predict which of the world's active volcanoes will erupt, saving countless lives.
Topics covered in this report include:
The Theory of Continental Drift
This Dynamic Earth-Developing the Theory PlateTectonics Works Cited
From the Paper "Abraham Ortelius, a Dutch mapmaker, first suggested the possibility that the earth's landmasses were not fixed in 1520. He suggested that the Americas were once attached to Africa and Europe. They were then ripped apart by earthquakes and floods, creating three continents. It wasn't until the early part of this century, when a German meteorologist named Alfred L. Wegener became intrigued by this concept and the ideas set forth by other scientists that land bridges had been connected the continents at one time, but had then sunk into the ocean."
Abstract This paper offers a general definition of platetectonics and a simple explanation for this process. The paper defines three specific types of platetectonic environments, provides examples of "seismic gaps"
and discusses the types of mountains that are formed as a result of platetectonics. The paper concludes that the impact of platetectonics on the geography of the earth can be seen almost everywhere one looks, whether in the United States, South America (the Andes Mountains), Europe (Mt. Vesuvius in Italy) or Asia (Mt. Fujiyama in Japan).
From the Paper "As a general definition, plate tectonics is based on a theory that the lithosphere of the earth is divided into a small number of plates which float on and travel independently over the mantle and that much of the earth's seismic activity, such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, occur at the boundaries of these plates. A simple explanation for this process would be to compare plate tectonics to the surface of a ball with individual areas that slide and/or grind against each other, thus creating seismic activity deep below the mantle of the earth. This activity, usually in the form of earthquakes, can be measured by geologist through the use of a seismograph which measures the intensity of a quake based on the Richter Scale from 1 to 10 magnitude."
Abstract This paper studies how platetectonics and fault line movement are impacting the shape of the California coastline. The paper begins with a discussion of how platetectonics have changed the earth's surface, including through earthquakes. Then the paper turns to one of the most famous major fault lines, the San Andreas fault. The paper examines its historical, current and future influence on California, such as the major earthquakes of the 1800s and 1900s. The paper concludes with a discussion of other fault lines, including active and inactive ones.
From the Paper "Plate tectonics is responsible for the building of mountain ranges, the separation of continents through creation of new crust when the seafloor spreads as new lithospheric material pushes out of rifts on the ocean floor, and for earthquakes and volcanic activity (including the creation of volcanic islands and mountain ranges). The regions where the action of plate tectonics is most discernible is where adjoining tectonic plates are most active: pressing into each other, sliding over or under each other, sliding past each other. This activity usually takes place at a geologic pace--that is, so slowly that it escapes the notice of short-lived creatures such as human beings. Humans are unlikely to see mountain ranges forming or continents drifting apart. When two great tectonic plates, such as the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate, move relative to each other along the Pacific coast at an average rate of 2 inches a year, who would notice? But the these gigantic plates do not move only by drifting or creeping at such an imperceptible pace. As they mash into each other, portions of their adjoining edges get hung up or frozen in place for years at a time, even for centuries or thousands of years. The pressure on these junctures finally gives way as much larger movements which humans perceive (can hardly ignore!) as earthquakes."
Tags: san, andreas, bay, area, los, angeles, earthquake, pacific, ocean
Abstract This paper discusses how science has developed many theories of how the earth works to explain natural disasters and why they are a continuous part of human life. According to this paper, one such theory concerns the continental drift and platetectonics that was explored to explain why certain natural formations upon the earth and in the seas are consistently changing.
From the Paper "Redfern attempts, through his writing, to explain a concept of science that has been beneficial to humankind by exploring natural change sin the earth. Redfern contends that the concept behind the continental drift is that the earth is formed in large plates, which are massive sections beneath the surface. Redfern states that Continental crust is very different from the crust that floors the oceans. Ocean crust is predominantly magnesium silicate, whereas the continents contain higher proportions of aluminum silicates. They also contain less iron than the denser material of the mantle or of the ocean floor. "
Abstract This paper looks at the life and work of Karl Gauss. It examines his theory on PlateTectonics, the theory of Motion of Heavenly Bodies and several other theories that were developed during his lifetime. The writer first briefly gives a bio of Gauss and then attempts to explain the theories in laymen's terms.
From the Paper "There are many well known mathematicians from history whose work is well known and position widely recognised. However, there are also many lesser known mathematicians that have also made equally valuable contributions. Karl Friedrich Gauss is one of these, and as such is a worthwhile individual to study. Gauss developed many ideas and theories which are still in use today. He is best known for his theory of plate tectonics and his work entitled "Theoria Motus Corporum Coelestium" ; Theory of the Motion of Heavenly Bodies in 1809. With Wilhelm E. Weber; a physicist he also developed a theory concerning geomagnetism. Much of his work is still used today, including work in the fields of physics, astronomy, and his statistical theories are even used in software algorithms. In this we see man who has made large contributions to the world of mathematics and related disciplines (Schaaf, 1964)."
Abstract The spreading of the seafloor under the Red Sea offers researchers a chance to study several important areas of science and apply what is learned to a better understanding of earth, earth's history, and perhaps other planets in the Solar System such as Mars. This paper reviews and examines existing science related to the tectonicplates (African and Arabian plates) beneath the Red Sea, the explanation for their movement apart and the dynamics of the hydrothermal activities that are part of the plate spreading itself. The Red Sea is of particular interest to scientists and this paper provides thorough reviews of the research conducted to date and examines why that research is of great value to science and to an understanding of how the Earth was formed. This paper includes figures and pictures.
Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
Red Sea Geologic Evolution
Spreading Seafloor Dynamics Beneath the Oceans and Seas
Red Sea Rupturing: Recent Research
Red Sea Hydrothermal Processes: Link to Life and Link to Mars
Recent Red Sea Science: Discussion
Conclusion
Works Cited
From the Paper "The Red Sea has become a geologic destination of preference for many scientists who are interested in plate tectonics, seafloor spreading, hydrothermal dynamics, the creation of minerals are ores from undersea activities, and more. As research continues using the latest technologies, students and other interested individuals will become informed and enlightened about the Red Sea and the implications for other undersea areas. It is vital for the health and well-being of the citizens on the planet for scientists and scholars to learn as much as possible about how the earth was formed and what it is doing at this stage in its evolution. The Red Sea is unlocking some of those mysteries, and will continue to reveal answers about the sea and the changing planet as time moves forward."
Abstract The paper looks at the points in the globe that are most surrounded by water and land. The paper compares the land and water areas in the northern and southern hemisphere and discusses flying and sailing between the two most distant points. The paper discusses convergent plate boundaries and the correlation between ocean depths and platetectonic processes. The paper examines major ocean surface current patterns, swells, breaking surf, tsunamis and tides. The paper also looks at depositional coasts versus erosional coasts.
Outline:
Identifying the Current Location
The Point Most Surrounded by Water
The Point Most Surrounded by Land
Comparison Between the Land and Water Areas in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere
Flying Between the Two Most Distant Points
Sailing Between the Two Most Distant Points
Convergent Plate Boundaries
The Correlation Between Ocean Depths and PlateTectonic Processes
Major Ocean Surface Current Patterns
Swells, Breaking surf, Tsunami
How do Tides in a Bay Depend on its Location in the Ocean?
Depositional Coasts versus Erosional Coasts
Marine Organisms in Pelagic and Benthic zones
From the Paper "New York belongs to the state bearing the same name and is situated on the north-eastern coast of the U.S.A, at the point where the Hudson River flows into the Atlantic Ocean. The city's geographical coordinates are latitude 40047'N and longitude 73058' W. The city is renown for its cultural aura, but also for its financial, business, and trading organizations which play a major role to the national and world economy (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City)."
Abstract Since the colonial era Victoria has been the capital of British Columbia. It is located on the southeastern tip of Vancouver Island. This paper outlines the physical geography of this region including its physical geography, geomorphology, soils, climate and vegetation. Additionally, the role of tectonic activity in the area is also explored.
Outline
Introduction
Physical Geography and Geomorphology
PlateTectonics Climate and Vegetation
Conclusions
From the Paper "Plate tectonics are the single most important geological force operating on the Victoria Region. This assertion is true for four distinct reasons. In the popularly understood conception of plate tectonics Victoria is on the edge of a plate being relatively violently subducted. Second, as a consequence of this it exhibits the most frequent earthquake activity in Canada. Third, and also a consequence of plate tectonics, it is subjected to cycles of extremely violent earthquake activity every few centuries (a blink of the eye in geological terms). Fourth and less commonly, micro-plate activity and the creation of terranes has significantly impacted on the physical geography of the Victoria region."
This paper discusses nursing theory, specifically in regards to self-care facilitated by Dorothy Orem's model and the mid-range theory of the community health model.
Abstract This paper discusses the importance of nursing theory as not simply a philosophical abstraction, but as also useful for the demands for "description, explanation, prediction and control" during nursing work and study. Having a background in nursing theories can prove helpful because theories give clues as to what to ask, what to observe, what to focus on and what to think about when a nurse is under pressure or dealing with a noncompliant patient. The paper asserts that even grand theories have a practical emphasis. They can offer validation of the patient's cultural differences and self-empowerment and actualization through facilitating patient self-care. Self-care facilitation is a stress in many of the grand theories, as Orem's theory likewise attempts to address self-care deficits such as patient noncompliance with a dietary or physical fitness regime. There is always inevitable overlap between models, as contemporary nursing models and grand theories all strive to be limited to a focus on problems in nurse-patient situations or problems in person-environment interaction to be of use in practitioners in the field. Furthermore, the paper looks at the use of middle range theories in nursing, which some assert are more useful and more easily tested in practice. These mid-range theories act as subsidiaries of grand theories, and draw a great deal of their philosophy from grand theories. The major categories of knowledge reflected in different contemporary nursing models and grand theories, which include needs-based approaches, interaction-based approaches, outcome-focused approaches and humanistic approaches can be placed through the use of mid-range theories in a very specific context, such as pain management, or health promotion.
From the Paper "Orem places a strong emphasis on exercise and physical activity that the patient can achieve him or herself. In the Community Empowerment Model, the nurse can provide counseling how to achieve such goals in the context of the patient's specific community and cultural environment (Extract from "Medicare Primary and Consumer Directed Care Demonstration: Health Promotion Nurse Intervention Model," 2002). The importance of exercise is directly derived from Orem's stress upon the need for the nurse to help the patient with such basic self-care modalities as nutrition, hygiene (including better sleep hygiene), mobility (including exercise), medication, and more empowered behavior. Orem also stresses patient empowerment in the context of direct nursing care, where the nurse has direct contact with client and/or family, along with Orem's the belief that self-care deficits are the result of environmental situations (Mayo, 1997).
"The environmental impact upon self-care also illustrates how the Community Empowerment Middle Range theory springs directly from Orem's influence, along with the pragmatic and humanist philosophical influences gave birth to Orem's stress upon patient empowerment during the entire process of treatment. The Community Empowerment Model also incorporates multiculturalism into its philosophy. Both theories share the logical positivist emphasis which stresses situations and context dictating the course of treatment, and the importance of taking into consideration the environment of the patient."
Tags: self-care facilitation Orem, mid-range theory, community health model, treatment
Abstract This essay discusses broad nursing theory and mid-range theory. The specific theories that are used as examples are comfort theory (mid-range) and self care deficit theory (broad theory). The paper shows that both theories are constructive to nursing, but that mid-range theory allows experimentation and solid conclusions.
A review and discussion regarding four different criminal theories: differential association theory, strain theory, routine activity theory, and a feminist theory.
1,125 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 1 source, 2005, $ 44.95
Abstract This paper examines four critical theories that have been developed in order to study criminal behavior in human societies. Each of the theories discussed in this paper have been chosen from a wide list of options and are part of a separate classification group. The four theories that this paper identifies are differential association theory, strain theory, routine activity theory, and a feminist theory.
From the Paper "Criminology is a wide field devoted to the theoretical study of crime, of its causes, of its relationship to the law, and of its relationship to human communities. In a way, crime affects all human societies at very fundamental levels. That such a powerful force should spawn a critical discipline devoted to its study is not surprising. Once it became an academic discipline it is even less surprising that critics and theorists have been unable to agree upon a theoretical framework that encompasses all aspects of criminology. Instead, criminology has been divided, over the years, into a number of critical theories that sometimes complement one another and other times are at odds with each other."
