The main two types of reasoning used in argumentation and how the argument from Pascal's Wager only provides prudential reasoning for the belief of God.
1,550 words (approx. 6.2 pages), 0 sources, 2001, $ 50.95
Abstract A discussion of the two main types of reasoning and an in-depth definition of each to help the reader understand each before taking a look at Pascal's Wager Argument. The paper then uses the knowledge of each type of reasoning to show how the Pascal's Wager argument only uses prudential reasoning.
From the Paper "The phrase 'a good reason to believe' is ambiguous between a prudential and an epistemic reading. A good prudential reason for something means that it is in one's self-interest to believe it over something he or she would otherwise choose. A good epistemic reason for something, on the other hand, is when one knows of a valid and sound argument supporting it. "
Abstract The paper examines the philosophy of Pascal, Montaigne and Descartes through a textual analysis. By observing the subjective reasoning that both of these philosophers imply, one can realize why they choose an inner relativity in relation to the truth. Although the truth in philosophy always questions the objectivity of truth in normative "Enlightenment Era" philosophy, Pascal, Montaigne and Descartes agree that the human mind can perceive truth within its own reasoning apparatus. The paper explains that in essence, Montaigne and Descartes agree on the subjective will of the mind that reveals the pattern of truth in human thought.
Abstract This paper cites passages by each of the three philosophers Descartes, Pascal and Montaigne, which are analyzed and placed within the context of the works within which they originally appeared. The author points out that all of the passages and works have a common theme --- whether God exists. The paper argues that philosophers of this period had to fit God into a rational and scientific world view.
From the Paper "The philosophers of the seventeenth century were, in a sense, inventing modern thought; they had the difficult job of incorporating the system of faith that was prevalent throughout the western world in to the framework of what science was discovering. During this historical time, and perhaps for the first time, faith was not enough anymore. In order to preserve faith, for themselves and for future generations, these philosophers had to prove that faith was justified on the basis of reason, and it is impressive that quite a number of them actually managed to do this quite effectively."
Abstract This paper examines the life history of BlaisePascal, born in France in 1662 and who died at the age of 39 from stomach cancer. The paper examines some of the great contributions made by Pacale to the maths field, including the first mathematical device, the creation of "Pascale's Triangle" and his theory of probability and causes.
Paper Outline:
A Genius is Born
Pascal's Education
Acceptance by the Mathematical Community
The Development of the Adding Machine and Other Experiments
Pascal's Triangle
Conclusion
Bibliography
From the Paper "When he turned fourteen, Pascal began to accompany his father to weekly geometrical discussions with what would later become the French Academy. The geometricians at these meetings included Roberval, Mersenne, Mydorge, Carcavi, Auzout, Mylon, Desargues and other's. The meetings were held at the home of Mersenne. Mersenne was a member of a religious order called the Minims. This is important, because later in his life Pascal would abandon math to study religion for several years."
Abstract The paper relates that BlaisePascal is the rare case of a mathematician equally famous for his religious devotion and contributions to theology as he is for his work with numbers. The paper looks at Pascal's notable discoveries in geometry, his work in probability that formed the foundation of today's economic study of game theory, his prototype of the modern digital, scientific calculator and his law of pressure.
Outline:
The Life of Pascal Major Discovery
How Pascal's Discoveries are Used Today
From the Paper "Despite the modernity, even humor, inherent in such moral calculations, Pascal was largely a man of his time, and a devout Christian. Blaise Pascal was born during the 17th century at Clermont on June 19, 1623, and died in Paris on August 19, 1662. Although the Frenchman's early education was confined to modern languages, when his father noted that the boy had unusual mathematical aptitude in geometry (Pascal intuited as a child why the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles), his father gave his son a copy of Euclid's Elements. It would not be an understatement to call the young Pascal a prodigy. At the age of fourteen Pascal was admitted to the weekly meetings of French geometricians, at sixteen he wrote an essay on conic sections and at the age of eighteen, he constructed the first arithmetical machine, a kind of prototypical adding machine or calculator (Ball 1908)."
Abstract This paper discusses how Pascal's study of mathematics and geometry helped lead to the invention of hydraulics, resulting in such modern innovations as the hydraulic press and medical syringe. The author explores Pascal's discoveries on probability, which resulted in gambling methodology and laid the foundation for statistics and insurance analysis. The author concludes that Pascal's growing religious convictions, later in his short life, included an attempt to strengthen traditional faith by applying the rational thought of modern science.
Abstract This comparative essay looks at the thought of Michel De Montaigne, Rene Descartes and BlaisePascal, with regards to the nature of God. The thesis states that all three men argued in favour of the existence of God, but had different ways of arriving at this conclusion. The paper describes that for Montaigne it was through scepticism, for Descartes through doubt and for Pascal through blind faith.
From the Paper "The Philosophical Argument for God France in the fifteenth to sixteenth centuries was a devout country of the Catholic Christian faith. At this time, as across Europe, learned men began to question not just the Catholic Church, as Luther's reformation inspired, but of God himself. Yet, the predominant orthodoxy was to support the existence of God, either through philosophy or just plain faith. Montaigne, Descartes and Pascal all alike affirmed the existence of God. Each though had their own unique method. For Montaigne this existence could be found through skeptical philosophy, and ultimately the divine revelation God has given to us."
Abstract This paper explains that the mathematical formula known as "Pascal's Triangle" was simultaneously discovered centuries before Pascal by the Chinese and the Persians; it was even mentioned by Omar Khayyam centuries before Pascal. Pascal, however, one of the world's most famous mathematicians, was the first "modern" mathematician to realize the true potential of the formula and apply it. The author points out that Pascal's Triangle contributed to the understanding of probabilities, which led to the development of "average gain" or "probable gain" formulas that are still used extensively in business and industry. The paper relates that there is one problem with Pascal's formula: as the numbers increase, the triangle takes much longer to solve, and the formula becomes ungainly, but mathematicians have learned to cope with the formula and have created alternates that let them work with the numbers more effectively. Formula included.
From the Paper "The mathematical formula known as "Pascal's Triangle" has long been attributed to the great mathematician and philosopher, Blaise Pascal, who lived in France during the 17th century. Pascal only lived to be thirty-nine years old, but during his lifetime, he made significant achievements in mathematics and philosophy, and may be most well known for the mathematical formula of Pascal's Triangle, which he did not invent, but has long received credit for inventing. Pascal was a bright child, who created the first known type of automatic calculator at the age of nineteen, and invented the modern-day barometer before he turned thirty-one."
Tags: probabilities, persians, chinese, formula, problem
Abstract This paper explains that, through logical analysis based on a punishment-reward premise, Pascal shows that believing in God is preferable to not believing. The author points out that the argument is called a "wager" because Pascal phrases it as a sort of bet: The individual has a better chance of being rewarded through belief than through denial; therefore, Pascals' wager defends belief in God through reason and appeal to basic self-interest rather than through theological or mystical proofs. The paper states that, although Pascal's theory is compelling and cleverly worded, the wager has several rhetorical and logical flaws: For example, Pascal's vision is overtly monotheistic and his worldview is essentially dualistic; however, Pascal would not admit to the possibility of multiple Gods because the philosopher's stance was rooted in Christian apologetic literature.
From the Paper "Ironically, to promote belief in a Christian God, Pascal avoids a direct discussion of Christian theology. Doing so strengthens the appearance of logic and underscores the statistical evidence that Pascal uses to promote theism. However, the absence of any real appeal to mysticism or to matters of the heart ends up weakening the wager. Pascal neglects what could be powerful appeals to emotion, which are essential to most compelling arguments. Also, although Pascal avoids a direct discussion of Christian theology, the philosopher cannot help but insert phrases like "eternal life and happiness," which are written to stimulate an emotional response in the reader. Betting on God brings "eternal life and happiness," according to Pascal, and therefore, no reasonable sane person would not believe in God."
Tags: punishment-reward, bet, self-interest, flaws, statistical
Abstract This paper looks at how, by using the method of doubt, Descartes claims to have proven with deductive clarity and distinctness that God exists. In particular, the paper examines how the deductive, scientific nature of Descartes' proof of God's existence seems to be the primary target of Pascal's criticism. The paper concludes that there is no contradiction in Pascal's being a Christian apologist and criticizing Descartes for including God in the "Meditations" and that Pascal's particular theology holds that God is too profound to be proven.
From the Paper "Perhaps it is true that Descartes would have been willing to dispense with God, if he had not needed to appeal to the church in order for his work to be accepted. The first part of Pascal's criticism is fair in that sense, but because of the difficulty in confirming the statement, it is not an especially forceful criticism. The second part of the criticism, when Pascal writes that Descartes "had to make Him give a [finger snap] to set the world in motion," is not only an unfair criticism but is mischaracterizes Descartes' treatment of God. Nowhere in the Meditations does Descartes posit a finger snap or any other divine action as the force setting the world in motion. In fact, this level of cosmology was well beyond Descartes' intended scope."
An analysis of the theme of modern travel in the poems "Trans-Siberian Prose and Little Jeanne from France" and "Easter in New York" by Blaise Cendrars.
Abstract The paper reveals that Blaise Cendrars was one of the first writers to interpret modern travel through poetry. In his poems "Trans-Siberian Prose and Little Jeanne from France" and "Easter in New York", Cendrars illustrates a thoughtful human reaction to rapid travel, modernity and the human experience within these new areas. The paper is of the opinion that Cendrars, as one of the first poets to discuss modernity in his poetry, plays an important role in the ongoing cycle of human culture and understanding. The paper demonstrates how both poems, through intense imagery, use of place, metaphor and strong motifs, more than adequately express a vision of modernity in Blaise Cendrars' world.
From the Paper "While the first of the poems may appear to be a glorified travelogue of the author's possibly fictional trip across Asia, it still stands to represent the modern changes in the late 1800s and early 1900s. "Easter in New York," conversely, might be criticized as mocking Christians or Christian religion, though it is intended to illustrate the changes in modern religion through a discourse of change in tradition and Christian ideals. Cendrars, in accordance with the theories of Foucoult, successfully fulfills the role of author by producing these two poems; he not only creates art that is a mirror of the modern changes in travel and the world, but he also becomes an object of the modern world that he illustrates."
Abstract This paper discusses the views of Montaigne and Pascal. It explores the beliefs that are written in Montaigne's "Of Repentance" and Pascal's "Man in Ignorance of God." Overall, Montaigne stresses the existence of a moral structure inside every human being, while Pascal stresses the importance of thought in human beings.
Abstract This paper examines how Pascal makes the argument that belief in the existence of God puts the believer in a more desirable situation at death than that of the non-believer. It looks at how he bases his reasoning upon the possible rewards and losses of belief in God, compared to the rewards and losses of non-belief. It also explores how Pascal's God is the Judeo-Christian God and how the rules of faith for him are contained in the Bible. It attempts to show how Pascal provides a way for the skeptic to come to God through his 'Wager'.
From the Paper "Societies must agree upon an objective idea of morality to exist without anarchy. Consider the rewards given to the believer. According to Scripture, heaven awaits those who come to God through Jesus. One's sins and transgressions are washed clean and one experiences reunification with one's creator, but only if one believes in God. An eternity in the Kingdom, free from need or want is the prize. If God does not exist, the believer suffers no loss. Nothing comes after death. If there is no God, then when one dies one simply ceases to be. One cannot remember being alive prior to one's own existence, so non-existence after death would be the same thing. The only logical choice, then, is to believe in God. One gains everything or loses nothing depending upon the existence or non-existence of God.
Abstract This paper examines Boyer's philosophy of religion, God, and the divine. It explains that, in much the same manner as Darwin, Pascal Boyer entered into a world that again was casting off the moral constraints of a previous generation. It discusses how Boyer insists that religious beliefs are the result of natural brain functions and how this is reflected in a person's daily life.
From the Paper "When Charles Darwin appeared on the scientific horizon, much of the world was convinced that the religious account of creation accurately declared the genesis of mankind. Although uncomfortable with not being able to touch, taste, smell, or measure the truth of the account, the masses agreed that the biblical accounts of a creator of the species were the generally accepted treatise. However, without any proof, in a society which was being revolutionized by industry and the emergence of formal science, those who disagreed with Darwin had no foundation on which to stand. His theories were quickly accepted because he had put substance to the mythological. He had created a logical, reasonable theory as to the evolution of advanced beings from lesser advanced beings."
Abstract This paper compares and contrasts the conception of teenage life presented in Keenan's "Nancy Drew" series and Pascal's "Sweet Valley High". More specifically, the paper considers the sibling relationship, as well as the relationship between parent and child.
From the Paper "Between the time that Carolyn Keene penned the "Nancy Drew" series and Francine Pascal wrote her "Sweet Valley High" books, our society underwent many changes, including a rethinking of the family unit and increasing pressure on adolescents. More importantly the young adult readers that both Keene and Pascal intended as their audience changed significantly. As a result of their different social contexts, the two series present distinct views of adolescent life. Yet, both Keene and Pascal aim to teach young adult readers about life and relationships within their respective worlds..."
Tags:pascal, keenen, drew, sweet valley, sibling, parent, lesson
