Abstract
This paper examines the origins of parasites, their relationship to their host and how they have evolved in tandem with many other organisms. The paper seeks to answer several questions including why parasites live where they do and how the origins of evolution affect different parasites, specifically RNA and what role protozoans play in the life of parasites. The paper also discusses the process of Co-evolution and the effect that a parasite's long-term residence has on the body of different species, including humans.

From the Paper
"However, it is once an organism has taken up residence inside another organism, that a second and crucial process comes into play. This is the process of Co-evolution. Co-evolution is based relatively simply on the fact that Evolution is a non-stop process. All species are continually changing and developing. Genetic mutations, errors in the copying of DNA and RNA, lead to minute, or even at times, dramatic changes that might be either beneficial or maladaptive. In the normal course of things the maladaptive forms will die out, while the successful adaptations will survive as a result of those organisms that possess them living on to reproduce. The same process of evolution is at work both in host and parasite. As the host itself changes, the environment inside it changes as well. Subtle differences in conditions might mean death a microorganism living inside the body of another animal."

Tags:organisms, dna, rna, genetic, microbes, evolution, protozoans, helminthes, ancient, development, mammal, wildlife, amoebas, lifestyle, characteristic, animal, conditions, co-evolution, bacterium, microorganisms, survival, environment, human, life, cycle, embryos, body

Abstract
This paper takes a look at Chagas' disease, African sleeping sickness, and the leishmaniasis, all deadly diseases caused by mere parasites. What makes it so frightening is that these parasites are common bloodsucking insects such as the tsetse fly and the 'kissing bug'. This paper also analyzes the DNA make up and possible methods of eradication.

From the Paper
"As a matter of fact, some findings were released recently, and these stated the DNA sequencing of the three parasites 'Trypanosoma cruzi, 'T. brucei' and 'Leishmania major'. These three parasites are collectively referred to as the 'Tritryps', and there is neither any vaccine available against them, nor does there exist any suitable treatment for the diseases caused by them. The medicines that are available today as a part of the treatment for the patient afflicted with the disease are generally quite toxic and extremely difficult to administer, and more often than not, according to a report by the World Health Organization, it will not be successful. The older treatments, dating back to the 1940's, were based on arsenic and antimony, and today, there are different methods, but with extremely limited efficiency. (Parsing Parasites: genomes of three tropical parasites are sequenced)
Geneticists today have discovered many thousands of mutations that are responsible for various diseases in human beings, and among these the so called 'founder mutations' stand apart. "

Tags:genomes, mutations, tritryps, scientists, Parasitology, shotgun

Abstract
This paper explains that the Malaria parasite is a critical component of the spread of this disease through mosquito populations around the world. The author points out that one hypothesis is the ability of the malaria parasite to infect those persons who are not even located in the vicinity of the mosquitoes that carry the disease. The paper stress that this spread of the illness to less typical areas is critically importance to the advancement of methods to reduce the incidence of disease.

From the Paper
"The study of Malaria is a complex process, as it requires the identification of many different factors that relate to the physiology of the disease, as well as the symptoms that it causes within the host. There are a number of experimental approaches to evaluating Malaria, and it is anticipated that some of the most innovative strategies will encompass the utilization of tools that are effective in providing new discoveries in research and drug development. Although much of the research currently conducted on Malaria has been beneficial to the control of this disease, new discoveries have yet to be made based upon new theories. One hypothesis worth consideration is the ability of the malaria parasite, known as plasmodium falciparum, to infect those persons who are not even located in the vicinity of the mosquitoes that carry the disease."

Tags:malaria, parasite, research

Abstract
This paper discusses the classification, structure and functioning of bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites. The paper presents the methods of reproduction and mechanisms of pathogenesis, and then lists the antimicrobial agents used against them. For each case, the paper highlights one disease and discusses the laboratory diagnosis.

From the Paper
"Bacteria are prokaryotes, i.e. they do not have their DNA enclosed in a nucleus. They are among the earliest life forms that appeared on Earth billions of years ago and helped change the environment, creating oxygen which enabled higher forms to evolve..."

Tags:bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites

Abstract
Naegleria fowleri live in water that is above 80 degrees Fahrenheit and are most commonly found in warm, fresh, or brackish stagnant waters, such as lakes, rivers, hot springs, unchlorinated swimming pools, warm discharge pools from industrial plants, dust, soil, and sewage. This paper discuss the epidemiology of Naegleria fowleri, or Acanthamoeba, and looks at how prevalent these parasites are and whether we should be greatly concerned.

From the Paper
"Trophozoites penetrate the nasal cavity and then travel along the olfactory nerves to invade the brain tissue, resulting in meningitis and encephalitis. Once in the brain tissue, the organism produces cytologic enzymes, which causes hemorrhage and necrosis of the brain tissue. Some cases of myocarditis with neutrophilic infiltrates have been reported, but no amebas have been found (Johnson, 2000). If the organism is suspected early enough, the person can be treated with antibiotics and anti-fungal medications."

Tags:Trophozoites, PAM

Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a sporozoan parasite, and its definitive host is the cat. The organism was first identified in 1908 in the mononuclear cells of a North African rodent. Toxoplasmosis is a disease transmitted to humans and animals by toxoplama gondii, often in cat excrement, or in undercooked meat. It causes flulike symptoms and damages the central nervous system, eyes, and visceral organs. Congenital toxoplasmosis, transmitted from an infected mother to her unborn child, can lead to blindness and retardation. Although toxoplasmosis is a rare disease, its incidence has increased since the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) epidemic. Toxoplasma gondii belongs to Apicomplex parasite family. Research has recently shown that this family of parasites contains an intracellular structure more commonly associated with plants. This may allow for the formulation of new strategies for finding a cure for toxoplasmosis.

Abstract
This paper discusses the incidence of malaria in Africa and the difficulties encountered in implementing malaria prevention and treatment programs. The paper specifically discusses the political, social, and economic barriers that have consistently limited the ability to deliver treatment to sufferers of malaria, thus prolonging its destructive consequences in contemporary Africa. The paper further explains that, rather than focusing on bettering the health of the individual, the focus has been placed on possible benefits to the government and economy. For example, specific regions of Africa have been targeted when developing treatment and prevention plans because these regions are economically viable. The paper concludes that, in order to cure malaria in Africa, emphasis needs to be placed on what is best for the native people instead of concentrating on possible benefits to other uninfected countries.

From the Paper
"Current malaria control campaigns in Africa are still limited due to a lack of government funding. Partnerships of governmental, non-governmental, and philanthropic organizations are necessary to develop comprehensive programs, yet these partnerships often fail when attempted in Africa. In addition to a lack of consistent funding, these partnerships are composed of overlapping public and private institutions "without clear mandates, ease of coordination, or a leader to harmonize the activities". Until African governments can allocate appropriate funds to malaria control efforts and develop efficient systems for combating the disease, anti-malaria campaigns will continue to disintegrate. Since the initial failure of malaria control under the imperialistic notion to spread white enterprise, government programs have never been sufficient to implement preventative and treatment measures targeting malaria. The political implications of malaria control campaigns have, consequently, thwarted opportunities to cure the millions of infected Africans."

Tags:political, implications, medical, programs, negligence, social, status

Abstract
This paper discusses Plasmodium falciparum, the parasite that causes malaria, and several types of prevention and detection techniques used to curb the spread of the disease. Insecticides, genetic modification of mosquitoes, and THG imaging are highlighted.

From the Paper
"The organism Plasmodium falciparum of the genus Plasmodium, and the species Plasmodium falciparum, is a protozoan parasite that causes malaria, which is responsible for tens of millions of human deaths every year. (Durand et al) Regarded as the most lethal species of malaria, parasite Plasmodium falciparum has also been associated with AIDS-related opportunistic infections. Plasmodium falciparum is common in Africa where a less virulent strain of malaria caused by Anopheles gambiae is also..."

Tags:Plasmodium, falciparum, malaria, parasite, detection, prevention, THG imaging, antigen, insecticide, mosquito, modification, genetic, gene, protozoa

Abstract
This paper examines how human schisostomiasis or katayama fever is a serious parasitic infection caused by helminths and how schisostomiasis remains endemic in 76 countries and territories. mainly as a result of poor living conditions, improper sanitation and irrigation, which allow optimal parasite transmission. It reviews schisostomiasis and focuses on the immunological aspects of the disease and its vaccine development.

From the Paper
"Diagnosis of Schisostomiasis relies on both microbiological and immunological methods. Immunodiagnosis uses the principle of detection of antibodies and antigens. Several years ago, skin tests were user but now are considered inappropriate to perform due to their invasive nature. Most tests are performed today using plasma obtained from methods like finger pricking and venous blood. Other tests involve use of body fluids, urine, milk and saliva (Santos et al. 2000). Most commonly used are the Antibody and Antigen detection tests. As far as antibody tests are concerned, a positive result does not necessarily mean that this patient has an active infection. This test is more a marker that this person has been or is infected with Schisostoma."

Tags:fever, katayama, helminths

Abstract
This paper discusses a form of toxoplasmosis caused by a microscopic parasite called toxoplasma gondii, found in all warm-blooded animals like pets, livestock and human beings. It explains that the disease is transmitted from a mother contaminated with toxoplasma at the time of pregnancy to unborn child; eating under-cooked or uncooked meat of infected animals or eating food, drinking water or inhaling contaminated dust. The author points out that pregnant women can become infected by swallowing cat feces from a toxoplasma-infected cat; therefore, pregnant women should not empty the litter-box of cats. The paper relates that medication of opportunistic infections (OIs) like toxoplasmosis needs some intricate trial-and-error to determine the best treatment for an individual patient.

From the Paper
"The cure of toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis intends killing free Toxoplasma organisms before they can attack host cells, as well as the encysted parasite, without aggravating the situation as an effect. Folate synthesis inhibitors, mainly pyrimethamine and sulphadiazine, have been most regularly used to cure all groups of patient with toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis. These, and the protein biosynthesis inhibitor clindamycin, are useful against the extra-cystic form of Toxoplasma. Instantaneous treatment at the beginning of symptoms is a logical approach to therapy. This could lessen the probability of re-invasion by Toxoplasma of other host cells, and the extent of disease process, as well as the possibility of ensuing extension and reappearance. Systemic corticosteroids are also widely used in the healing of vigorous incidents of toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis. Treatment with glucocorticoids, including progesterone, can restrain antimicrobial activity of macrophages, and thus may have an effect on the result of steroid therapy for ocular toxoplasmosis."

Tags:retinochoroiditis, gondii, litter-box, raw, pregnant