Abstract The paper outlines the role of the two Godrics' (the good and the bad) in the OldEnglish poem "The Battle of Maldon" and analyses the beatification of Byhrtnoth. It sticks closely to the poem's use of language as a means of deciding that the main crime of OldEnglish literature is anti-heroism. It expands from here, to surmise that this was the prevalent crime because of the payment of Danegeld and the reign of Aethelred.
From the Paper "Against a consideration of Byrhtnoth, then, I would like to consider the true perpetrators of the crime of anti-heroism in Maldon: Odda's sons, who flee after their lord's death, thus revoking the heroic ideal. I would like to consider first the role of the two Godrics? in the poem. Any reception of either, it must be noted, is moderated by the moral worth that Byrhtnoth instils in the poem. To put it simply, "bad" Godric is ignoble, fleeing on his master's horse, and "good" Godric is virtuous, fighting till the death to avenge his lord. The fact that their names are identical forces one to assume that they are meant as comparative entities in the poem; more than this, there exists an alarming parity in the presentation of each Godric."
Abstract A discussion of the parallel between the strength of the Christian influence and the treatment of animals in OldEnglish literature, including examples from Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales" and Marie de France's "Lanval and Fables".
From the Paper "Though the selection of Old English material that has been covered in this course is but a small sample of what is available, the works we have covered are some of the most famous and influential from history, and one can make inferences about all Old English works from this sample. Therefore, judging by these works, taken from the Seventh Edition of the Norton Anthology of English Literature, Volume One, it appears that the more Christianized a work of Old English literature it is, the less reverence or respect is given to animals, when animals are mentioned at all. In fact, the works can be divided into three categories, each of which treats animals in a different manner. The first category is the oldest of this literature, the truly Germanic tales where the Christian God is rarely mentioned and may have actually been added in by the translator. Unfortunately we have only one representative of this group, Beowulf. The second category is made up of works that were not written for a distinctly religious purpose but certainly have Christian undertones. These include Marie de France's Lanval and Fables, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, and Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales. The third category consists of works that were written specifically for religious purposes or by religious people, such as monks or priests. Those referred to here are An Ecclesiastical History of the English People by the Venerable Bede, The Dream of the Rood, and The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle."
Abstract This paper presents an examination of the English language and its origins. The author traces through the three stages of OldEnglish, Middle English, and Modern English and examines the development of language.
From the Paper "The English Language has been built on the backs of great nations and as these nations rose they brought with them a language that has evolved over many generations and is spoken all over the world. The history of the English language is an extensive and colorful one that has filled the lives of the linguistic scholars who have studied it with many hours of reading material. The English language and its origins will be traced through the three stages of Old English, Middle English, and Modern English. The stages will be studied in order to understand what influences have played a key role in the development of English. Also in this paper a look will be taken at the ways slang, jargon, and Colloquialism continue to the changes that English is even now under going."
Tags: development, english, history, midle, modern, old, language, words
Abstract This paper discusses phonemes and how they apply to the English language. The author traces changes in this language beginning with OldEnglish and moving through Middle English to present-day English, and provides examples of changes in each. The author also explains why only forty-four out of a possible three hundred phonemes are used in present-day English.
From the Paper "A phoneme, as defined by Crystal is, "The smallest contrastive unit in the system of a language"(456). There are approximately three hundred phonemes in existence that are shared by the five thousand plus languages of the world. The English language only uses forty-four of the three hundred total phonemes. Some languages require more than forty-four phonemes and some require less in order to function. The truth is that none of the world's languages use the three hundred available phonemes. Languages use only as many as they need in order to be understood. The reason that the English language uses a mere forty-four phonemes is very simple; that is all that it needs. However, the number of phonemes in our language has changed, and it will probably change in the future. It is important to examine the reasons for change and discuss why the number of English phonemes is so limited."
Abstract This paper argues that the Beowulf poet develops an intricacy in his poem that is unusual to OldEnglish literature. It considers the nature of evil in the poem and also the notion of transience commonplace to OldEnglish poetry. It looks at how "Beowulf" is unusual in that it predates ? by about a millennium ? present conceptions of evil and how a modern reader might draw parallels between Grendel and Osama Bin Laden, for example. It examines how the poem is fashioned by its propensity for dwelling on the continuum that exists between good and evil, and subsequently by its use of dualistic modes of interpretation: the finite as against the infinite, the human in opposition to the non-human. It also contends that Beowulf presents a mode of dualism that is ever present in human thinking and that the poem dramatises subtle behaviour in its subversion of this dualism.
From the Paper "That Beowulf is so fundamental to ? and in fact determines ? what is a particularly momentous conundrum impresses upon the reader the total importance of his character in the poem. His death is not the end of a poem, but the potential demise of a nation. It is poignant, and cyclical, that, as Swanton puts it: ?Just as no man knew what became of Scyld Scefing, neither did they know ? nor do we know ? what became of Beowulf's Geats; they both just drift out of history? . It is fitting that Scyld's funeral should overshadow, or contain, Beowulf?s; it is Scyld's infinite death that moderates Beowulf's finite life. It is perhaps, then, the death of Beowulf that breaks the cyclical hold of Scyld in the poem."
Abstract This paper examines how issues of loss and grief predominate in much of early English literature and how the lament and the elegy, poems which express deep grief or mourning, are frequent in OldEnglish poetry. It looks at how these poems provide today's reader with insight and a unique perception on the thoughts of sorrow and loss and how Anglo-Saxon culture perceived and dealt with death and exile. It explores how this issue of loss lies at the center of two poems in particular, "The Wife's Lament" and "The Wanderer".
From the Paper "The Wife's Lament is an excellent example of experienced loss. In this text, a woman lives in exile from her kin. Although there are several interpretations of the specifics of the woman's grief, the one certain fact is the description she gives for her grief. This grief can be broken down into three key subjects. The first subject that must be considered is the actual words she uses. Although the text is a translation by Alfred David, it can be considered reasonably accurate in most word usage. The specific words used can tell us a great deal about not only this particular case, but of suffering in general. In addition the metaphors and symbolism that can be seen in the text provide us with a great deal of information regarding the medieval mindset."
This paper discusses the embedded narratives in "Beowulf", the "lone survivor" of a genre known as OldEnglish long epics written anonymously sometime before the tenth century A.D..
Abstract This paper explains that, despite its age, the poem "Beowulf " utilizes a complex method of storytelling called embedded narratives, which is essentially a story within a story; not only does this OldEnglish epic have many embedded narratives within but also the narratives possess strong coherency with the current story at hand. The author analyzes five of these embedded narratives; the last one, found in the third epic of "Beowulf" is a story partly told to give the reader a brief history on the dragon that Beowulf must defeat and the treasure-horde it protects. The paper concludes embedded narratives throughout the epic poem of Beowulf seem to serve multiple purposes: A vehicle for foreshadowing, clarity in regards to character identification, comparing and contrasting and understanding, depiction and overall detail of the Anglo-Saxon period.
From the Paper "The first embedded narrative in Beowulf, begins immediately after Grendal's death. Following the demise of the fiend was a celebration to honor the heroic feats of Beowulf, the protagonist of the adventure. At one point during the festivities, King Hrothgar's thane, a story teller, shares the story of Sigemund. The narrator indicates that Sigemund had received a "treasure-hoard" after defeating a dragon by piercing a sword through its scales. In addition to the treasure, Sigemund gained publicity and his "name was known everywhere" (51). This embedded narrative is significant since serves to foreshadow the victory of Beowulf against a dragon in the concluding portion of the poem. As any reader who has finished the epic poem may know, Beowulf is victorious in slaying a dragon in the Geatish-territory."
This paper discusses "The Wanderer" (anonymous), which survives today in the Exeter Book in folios 76r-78 and represents the elegiac mood typical of OldEnglish poetry.
Abstract This paper explains that the structure of "The Wanderer" (anonymous) is divided into two halves, the first describing the personal experiences of the lonely wanderer and the second evaluating earthly powers and treasures in comparison to heavenly security and wisdom. The author points out that symbolism presented in this poem all contributes greatly in supporting its central idea of achievement of wisdom and its various themes of exile, loneliness and religion. The paper states that this poem depends heavily on allegories and symbolism using Biblical images to put forth its ideas thus making the poem slightly difficult to understand on both the literal and figurative levels. Quotations are in OldEnglish.
From the Paper "The second half of the poem stresses the process of the achievement of wisdom through the wanderer's reflection and meditation. Initially the wanderer is a solitary exile, well aware of the hardships he has to face and has already faced. He prays to God in despair for mercy, and during the prayers he realizes that a man indulging in self-pity was not worthy of God's grace, and he recalls that suffering is a virtue. The concept of the Day of Judgment and resurrection is highlighted and the ending narration endorses the eternal existence of God and the earth as a passage through which everyone has to pass."
This paper compares the representation of woman during the period of oldEnglish literature as depicted in "Beowulf" (anonymous) and in Geoffrey Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales".
Abstract This paper explains that, in "Beowulf", the epic verse of heroism and honor, the major and the majority of the minor characters are male with the women even Grendel's Mother, the monster's mother, appearing to be of little consequence; however, in Geoffrey Chaucer's stories, "The Wife of Bath" and "The Miller's Tale", female characters are central to the stories. The author points out that the Wife of Bath is the narrator of the tale and includes her own mini-autobiography before beginning her tale of the knight; the female character in "The Miller's Tale" is the central point of action, the reason the story moves forward. The paper relates that the women in "Beowulf" are portrayed as being either evil or good; whereas, in Chaucer's tales, the women move from being revered, as in "The Wife of Bath" to being instrumental in creating fools of men by using sexual powers.
From the Paper "Chaucer begins the "Miller's Tale" by describing the social circumstances surrounding the group. The Miller is drunk and some feel it would be best if he simply passed up his chance to speak and let someone else entertain, however the Miller insists and apologizes in advance for anything that he might say. This tale does not paint the female character as one of wisdom and loyalty as in the Wife's tale, but rather as a lusty young maiden, who much resembles the Wife herself. The Miller explains that his tale is about a carpenter, his young wife, a student and a clerk. The student boarded with the carpenter and his wife, and one day while the carpenter was away, the student came forth with his intentions to the wife, who readily accepted."
Abstract In Yeats's "When You Are Old," the speaker addresses a woman by telling her to imagine her future based on her past and her relationship with the speaker. This paper analyzes the speaker's attitude toward the woman and how that attitude is conveyed through the poem's form, diction, imagery and tone.
From the Paper "William Butler Yeats' poem, "When You Are Old," depicts an old woman looking back over her life and regretting having forsaken the love of the poem's speaker. Yeats' careful attention to stylistic elements allows him to incorporate a great deal of meaning into this brief poem. Yeats' narrator addresses the woman many years prior to the scene that he describes, apparently hoping to convince her to avoid this fate by choosing him over her many other suitors. Through a stylistic consistency in which each of the poem's form, diction, imagery, and tone all increase in complexity and venture further into abstraction as the poem proceeds, Yeats conveys the speaker's complicated attitude toward the woman. The end result is a poem which concisely and deftly relates the speaker's desire for the woman while simultaneously expressing his attitude that she is susceptible to flattery and manipulation."
Abstract The debate over whether or not English-only policies are justified in the American workplace is sure to continue; however, there is no clear-cut guidelines to determine whether or not a company should have an English-only policy. The best advice to date is to limit the implementation of an English-only policy unless there is a clear business necessity that presents justification for having one. This paper presents an overview of the English-only debate in the United States, including background information and arguments made by proponents and opponents. The paper closes with a set of guidelines for organizations deciding to either maintain or implement English-only policies and recommended alternatives to English-only policies in the American workplace.
From the Paper "English-only is an extremely broad term. For the purposes of this paper English-only policies are the entire spectrum of language policies enforced in the workplace that either promote the usage of English or restrict the usage of non-English languages in some way. In the broader English-only debate there are other terms used to differentiate the specific type of policies enforced. In governmental legislation, an English-only law would be a law allowing ?"only"? English usage and no usage of other languages. On the contrary, an Official English policy or law would make English the official language of use, but not restrict the usage of languages other than English. The fact that many individuals involved in English-only debates are using the same terminology to refer to different types of policies adds to the confusion. It also helps explain why, in the court rulings, it is almost impossible to provide a clear definition of why certain policies are legal and others are illegal (Hoffman, 2001, p. 3). In the United States, neither the constitution nor the federal law codifies English as the nation?'s official language (Santoro, 1999, p. 890). So contrary to belief of many, English is not the official language of the United States. However, twenty-three states have active Official English statutes and others are pending (Crawford, 2002). But even these statutes vary enormously. Some state statutes simply declare English as the official language of the state in sort of a symbolic gesture; much the same way state birds are named (American Civil Liberties Union, 2002). Other states, such as Arizona, which has the, ?"the most restrictively worded official-English law"? (Arington, 1991), take their statutes much more seriously. Some state and local language laws have gone as far as to restrict the governments from providing emergency services such as police lines in non-English languages (American Civil Liberties Union, 2002)."
Abstract A personal opinion paper which addresses the following questions - Does globalization of English form a serious threat? Do languages other than English face a slow death? This essays argues the eminent future of English and mother tongue.
From the Paper "It appears that English is to become the main language in Europe, and perhaps the world. This topic has been discussed extensively and widely and there has been massive scientific research in recent years. I came upon the article "The Great English Divide" merely by chance, and the discussion caught my particular interest, as I am a Dutch-speaking Belgian, living in multi-lingual South Africa and currently studying towards a degree in English. I surfed the Internet, and found hundreds of articles discussing this same subject. The articles of my choice are only a few examples. Professor David Crystal has nominated a book to the subject "English as a global language" , where he researched these three questions: What makes a world language? Why is English the leading candidate? Will it continue to hold that position? David Crystal has written a number of books on the topic itself. My main interest is how this globalisation of the English Language will influence English as a language. Is the idea of globalisation of English not just a triumphalist notion? Will the increase of the use of English in non-English speaking countries change English vocabulary and grammar? Will the use of 'Fusion English' increase? Paradoxically, could it mean that the population of Europe will become monolingual and could therefore mother languages become extinct?"
Abstract The author of this paper disagrees with opinions that English should not be the official language of the United States. He shows that if English is not the official language, it makes learning it optional and in some cases, for non-English speakers, trivial. The author feels, however, that the United States government should offer federally-funded programs to help immigrants learn English. The paper examines several sources on the subject.
From the Paper "Overall, I do not feel that any extreme is the right solution to a situation. I feel that in the United States, English is a common bond that allows people of diverse backgrounds to reach common understanding. However, I do not agree with the "English-only" movement. In my opinion, it is the extreme of English becoming the official language of the United States. I believe that anyone that resides in the United States should be able to speak proper English. But, people can still speak whatever language they choose at home and in private life."
Abstract This paper, written from a religious Christian perspective, attempts to show that the New Testament writings can be seen as the direct fulfillment of Old Testament Messianic prophesy. The author acknowledges the many problematic issues that surround the theological relationship between the teachings of Christ in the New Testament and the Old Testament Messianic vision. This paper, however, focuses on what the author considers to be the many prophetic statements of the Old Testament regarding a Messiah. Several examples of these statements are given in the text, with most coming from the Book of Isaiah.
Outline:
Introduction
Old Testament Messianic Prophesies
Genesis and Early Prophetic Statement in the Old Testament
Lineage
Isaiah
The Son of God: Psalms and Proverbs
God Nature
Daniel
The fulfillment of Messianic Prophesies in the New Testament
Conclusion
From the Paper "It is also an important part of the discussion of this subject to be aware of the complexities and problematics of a direct and overly simplistic linkage between Old Testament prophetic statements about the Messiah and the image and message of Jesus Christ in the New Testament texts. As the above quotation indicates, the Old Testament Messianic vision is largely related to the future history of the Jewish people and has historic and political connotations. While these problematics are largely outside of the parameters of this study as such, yet it is also important to take note of the fact that important Old Testament prophets like Isaiah saw the Messiah in possibly a different light to the way that Jesus is portrayed in the New Testament. For example, a study of the prophecies of Isaiah by Patterson (1953) states the following. "
Tags:Old, Testament, Messiah, predictions, savior, Jesus
Abstract This paper examines several factors that determine success in the English-as-a-second-language classroom. The author argues that English is the necessary skill by which immigrants integrate into American society. Additionally, the author cites the linguistic paradox that exists in American society-- on the one hand, it encourages and honors diversity while on the other hand it encourages foreigners to learn English to the exclusion of their mother tongue. The paper concludes by stating language learning must be focused on the individual's learning style and needs whenever possible.
Outline:
Introduction
Definitions and Theories of Culture and Learning
The Significance of Sociocultural Theory
Bibliography
From the Paper "Since its inception, the United States have been a mix of many cultures. At the time of the first colonialists, the country was seen as a place of opportunity and prosperity for any who would make use of the vast resources offered. The immigration trend, despite all evidence to the effect that the opportunities offered are indeed not as vast as believed at first, continues to this day. This has created some difficulty in terms of culture and language, as immigrants attempted to integrate themselves into the United States and its workplace and schools while attempting to retain some of the culture that was their own since birth. In the L2 classroom then, it is vitally important to take into account matters of culture and the influence of this on learning."
