Abstract Ethical Intuitionists philosophers espouse a meta-ethical theory that holds that some value terms, such as good, are indefinable and unanalyzable. This paper explores the views of philosopher G. E. Moore on ethical intuitionism in his work "Principia Ethica" and for his role in the formation of the ?NaturalisticFallacy? - where natural properties and only natural properties are attributed to what constitutes the value of good.
From the Paper "When many of us speak of intuition, we seem to view it as a process by which we attain an instant apprehension of truth. But Moore cautions us differently and points out that cognitions obtained via intuition are as susceptible to error as cognitions obtained empirically or experimentally. If they are, and there is much evidence to agree with him, doesn?t this suggest that intuition is "obtained" via some deductive or reasoning or empirical process? What, then, is happening when two people disagree about the nature of good? How can we decide who is right and who is wrong? Must we simply abandon our efforts to find a resolution? That both sides could be right Moore rules out, since he views good as an objective quality. But are so many of us so ill-equipped that only some of us can intuit the true nature of good? Surely not; surely the problem lies with the theory."
Abstract This paper gives brief examples and explanations of twelve separate instances of fallacies in either advertisements or editorials in newspapers. The author organizes the paper according to the type of fallacy each example represents. The paper includes fallacies such as appeals to force, appeals to pity, appeals to vanity and bandwagon fallacies.
From the Paper "Joanne Ditmer argues that we must protect and preserve our public open spaces. As evidence for this, she argues that if we do not, those lands could easily be transformed housing for convicted sex offenders, suggesting that if we do not preserve open space then we are all at danger from the proximity of those offenders. This is an obvious fallacy of appeal to force. Similarly in his article, David Ulin argues against the development of robots that could be used by the military to fight battles."
Abstract An analysis of three examples of logical fallacies as applied to comments on the record of public discourse regarding the Iraq war and same-sex marriage.
From the Paper "The modern public political discourse provides ample examples of logical fallacies that have significance for the fate of critical thinking not to say the fate of the republic . These examples are the subject of this research "
Tags: slippery, slope, fallacy, critical, thinking, appeal, to, ignorance, fallacy, appeal, to, authority, fallacy
Abstract This paper reviews relationships between logical fallacies, critical thinking, and decision-making. The paper also identifies three logical fallacies and looks at how critical thinking is applied to the decision-making process with regard to each fallacy.
From the Paper "In this paper three logical fallacies are defined. The significance of each logical fallacy to the process of critical thinking is explained and the general application of critical thinking to decision-making with respect to each logical fallacy is discussed. A logical fallacy is an argument that is defective because of faulty reasoning. Essentially, a logical fallacy occurs when one draws a conclusion from statements that do not in fact support the conclusion. The presence of a logical fallacy does not necessarily..."
Abstract This paper is an overview of sixteen common fallacies used in debate. The paper provides two examples of each in the hopes that students can better discern these fallacies when they emerge in debate and/or in academic literature. As a useful point, these examples can also be used to highlight the partisanship of leading politicians eager to spread their own agenda.
From the Paper "Ad Hominem: personal attacks of any kind are ad hominem attacks. Two examples would be Al Franken's loud denunciations of Bill O'Reilly and others while another would be someone dismissing George W. Bush's policies because he is (allegedly) "stupid". Ad Populum: Two examples of ad populum fallacies would be recent gall-up polls showing weak support for the war in Iraq and/or an argument that insists that "most people" do not want gay marriage or an end to abortion."
Abstract This paper examines President Bush's use of logical fallacies in his presidential debates with Democratic candidate John Kerry. It defines and describes the three logical fallacies used by Bush namely, the Appeal to Pity, the Bandwagon Argument and the Red Herring. The author provides examples from these debates.
From the Paper "Logical Fallacies are most basically defined as flaws in reasoning typically used in an argumentative chain of statements. Analyzing the set of assumptions that underlie a chain of argumentative statements is the bedrock of critical thinking. Fallacies are of ..."
Abstract This paper studies the concept of inductive fallacies and focuses on the hasty generalization fallacy, which makes assumptions about a population based on a very small sampling of perhaps one or two cases. The paper looks at the example of "goths" in mainstream media and how they have been assumed to be violent and antisocial based on the activities of only three people.
From the Paper "From time to time, everyone makes assumptions about people and places without getting all the information. A friend might go to a restaurant and have bad experience of some kind and then tell everyone not to go there because the food is terrible or the waiter staff is rude. In the study of logic, these assumptions are called hasty generalization fallacies, which is a form of an inductive fallacy. Many of these generalizations are harmless, as long as you're not the owner of that restaurant, but there are some important ways that this type of fallacy can be extremely dangerous and harmful to large numbers of people. Bigotry is often a result of a combination of stereotyping and hasty generalization fallacies, whether it's against people of particular genders, races, or even fashion statements."
Abstract This paper details three common fallacies to critical thinking, particularly within an organization. It provides examples of each fallacy (analogy or false analogy, post hoc ergo propter hoc fallacy and the straw man argument) and it addresses the significance of each fallacy in relation to critical thinking. The paper then examines the general application of fallacies in relation to decision-making.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Fallacies Arguments and Fallacies Common Fallacies Critical Thinking and Decision- making
Conclusion
From the Paper "The straw man argument is another logical fallacy. The straw man approach attempts to misrepresent an opponent's position on a subject to make it easier to attack the opponent. Using the straw man tactic, one would distort the view of the opponent to ridiculous extremes or attack the weak premises associated with the argument. An example of this form of logical fallacy is represented in an article published in The Vancouver Sun. The article specifically reveals how the straw man approach is used to discredit expert claims to the cause and effects of global warming and extreme weather events. In this article, the Vancouver Sun writer Morag Carter opposes the position of the editor of the Journal of Natural Hazards, Tad Murty. The Sun writer explains, Murty has been quoted in the press: "This [global warming] is the biggest scientific hoax being perpetrated on humanity". Murty goes on to explain, " There is no global warming due to human anthropogenic activities" (Carter, 2006). Carter uses this article to stress how Murty has used the straw man approach to attack the credibility of the claim that global warming is contributing to extreme weather events."
Tags: analogy, ergo, propter, evidence, straw, man
A discussion of how the logical fallacies of division, appeal to pity, and hasty generalization are significant to critical thinking and decision making.
Abstract This paper defines logical fallacies and compares them to logical arguing. The paper first discusses three logical fallacies: division, appeal to pity and hasty generalization. It then offers organizational examples for the three types mentioned above and explains their significance to critical thinking. The paper also discusses the logical fallacies' general application towards decision making.
Table of Contents:
Three Types of Logical Fallacies Division
Appeal to Pity
Hasty Generalization
How this Relates to Critical Thinking and Decision Making
From the Paper "In conclusion, should we stay oblivious or forgetful to our own logical fallacies? We need to understand that critical thinking is crucial towards the quality of life. If our thinking is unclear, biased, partial, and prejudiced, this will be costly for us both in terms of money and even in quality of life. At first glance, it is not obvious. However, we demonstrated above how division, appeal to pity, and hasty generalization can affect our thinking, and as a consequence, our quality of life; and we can see, logical fallacies not only negatively affect our thinking, but our lives in general."
Abstract Discusses literary theories of Zola and the naturalists. Zola's vision of fiction as representing the world with unadorned realism. Their desire to achieve transparency. Influence of 19th century science and work of Darwin, Comte and Taine on the literary approach taken by the Naturalists. Stylistic and social reasons for the naturalist school.
From the Paper "Zola (1864) held that there were three windows of literary mimesis: the Classical (which enlarges), the Romantic (which distorts), and the Realist (which is transparent). As the leader of the naturalist school of writing Zola was committed to a vision of fiction as the representation the world in a manner that provided a window on reality, presenting it unadorned and plain as it really was. This is an analogy that is very telling since it refers not just to the supposed transparency of naturalist fiction that enables the viewer to 'see' that world, but to the pane of glass that is interposed between the world and the viewer and to the framework of the window that makes a selection from the wider world that defines exactly what part of the world the novelist wishes the reader to see. The act of framing is attributed to the novelist but the implications that ..."
Abstract The goal of positivistic science is prediction of how the natural world operates. An opposing paradigm of science is the approach taken by Henry Thoreau and John Muir. The paper shows that in naturalistic science, those analyzing the natural world make no distinction between thoughts and values. They are much more concerned with the "why" of nature as opposed to the "how" aspect of positivistic science. The paper shows that, as a result, naturalistic science is completely value laden and each individual naturalist scientist encompasses his own world views into his description of how the natural world operates.
From the Paper "For naturalists, the only true way to obtain a taste of nature is to actually live with nature and not separate oneself from its workings. This quote emphasizes how values are an important facet in doing this; by removing oneself from natural surroundings, i.e. moving to the city, one loses the actual relationship that exists between humanity and nature. Humans must be involved in the whole process of nature in order to enjoy it fully. For Thoreau, general truths or the laws concerning nature are also relevant to human truths."
Abstract Logical fallacies are methods of argumentation or persuasion that, in simplest terms, look or sound good, but do not stand up to critical analysis. This paper explains that, although there are more, three very commonly used examples of logical fallacies are 'straw man', 'equivocation' and 'ad hominem'. It shows how these fallacies are frequently used to get people to agree to desired proposals or plans. They are often used when those doing the proposing either are not sure their facts are strong enough to get cooperation or those doing the proposing are sure that people will not agree because the proposals are not honest/necessary or useful to begin with.
From the Paper "The straw man fallacy includes such approaches as stereotyping, caricaturing, name-calling, slanted language or deck-stacking. Basically the idea is to portray your opponent as weak so that your own arguments look stronger. Reporting the opposing views in overly simplified terms or in concepts that are absurd are relied on to make the opinion or position offered by those employing the technique, seem stronger and more sensible."
Abstract Although the reporting of facts and figures is often thought of as an objective science, quite frequently even business reporting is characterized by logical fallacies, including but not limited to, appeals to ignorance, hasty generalizations, and ad hominem attacks. This paper argues that these logical fallacies are particularly common and pernicious in business reporting because of the frequently technically complex nature of the subject matter in regards to facts and figures, combined with the emotional texture of business reporting that involves the fabric and texture of individual lives. The paper shows that reporters wish to attract attention and render complexities comprehensible, but frequently fall into logically fallacious traps to accomplish these objectives. The paper provides examples from business reports to elaborate on the ideas.
From the Paper "This is particularly important to remember when reading the business section about distasteful individuals, because it is tempting to assume, when hearing about past dirty dealings, to either discount all of the information brought up by the person, because of the past character of the potential economic criminal, or to assume that he or she knew everything about the dark corporate dealings at the company. Even the lack of evidence is made to sound dark in the above-cited article's rhetoric: "Considering that he was the driving force behind Enron's growth, the micromanaging former CEO did an amazing job of distancing himself from its decline. He stopped selling stock four months before Enron collapsed"and left the company entirely two months beforehand. He rarely used e-mail. His signature is conspicuously, and uncharacteristically, absent from the approval sheets for some of Fastow's most controversial deals.? ("Who Will Fastow implicate"? January 19, 2004, Business Week Online retrieved on January 19, 2004 at http://www.aol.businessweek.com/bwdaily/index.html#top) The ad hominem attack is generally used as a kind of intellectual shorthand, equating man with message, rather than trying to understand the business at hand."
Abstract This paper examines how critical thinking is evident by the very fact that it plays a pivotal role in any process of enquiry that is undertaken to arrive at the truth, a sound argument, or an objective opinion. It discusses three fallacies that belong to the broader category of informal fallacies, which rely on ambiguity and emotional appeal instead of logic and reason and shows how important it is that critical thinkers develop the necessary skills to ensure that reasoning is based on verifiable facts and relevant premises and not on fallacies of logic.
From the Paper "The red herring fallacy, which is also known as ignorance of refutation, shares a great deal of similarity with the two fallacies discussed earlier. This is because all three fallacies attempt to digress from the main argument. However, the red herring fallacy refers to an argument that is based on premises, which are logically irrelevant to its conclusion (Curtis, 2001-2004). For example, if a business that is accused of creating unacceptable levels of pollution argues that it is generating employment for thousands of people and that it pays millions of dollars in taxes, it is using premises that are irrelevant to the conclusion. As such, decisions in such cases must take place only after all such irrelevant reasons are weeded out."
Abstract This paper describes how logical fallacies can affect us in academic and scientific research and even in the decisions we make in everyday life. The paper points out that a very valuable skill in making decisions is the ability to identify logical fallacies and to apply tools that help you identify them. Moreover, the paper describes some types of logical fallacies and some of the tools for identifying them, as well.
From the Paper "There is little question that logical or analytical fallacies can (and have) plagued data analysts in all major fields of knowledge from the beginning of recorded time. Not only can these fallacies of reason cause immense harm due to their capacity to mislead, but they can also ruin an otherwise sound argument or conclusion. For this reason, it is important to utilize varied "tools" designed to prevent or detect fallacies."
