From the Paper
"Abstract:
The development of natural-language processing, or the ability of computers to respond to commands or other inputs couched in ordinary English, has been one of the central challenges of computer science, and one closely related to the issue of artificial intelligence (Goshawke, Kelly, and Wigg, 1987). The general problem of natural-language processing has not yet been solved, but elements of natural-language processing have been employed in a highly useful category of applications known as expert systems.

Introduction:
When the first electronic digital computers were introduced in the late 1940s, their ability to swiftly perform elaborate sequences of calculations--for example, predict the trajectory.."

From the Paper
"Retrieving information from computers is one of the key functions that users perform, but has long been shrouded in convoluted commands. Users have to be able to enter queries in language that the computer can understand, usually from the keyboard, and using Boolean (and, or) logic. With the increase in the number of artificial intelligence systems in business and other applications, this method of retrieving information is proving increasingly frustrating because of the intense training time required to teach new users how to communicate with the computer. Artificial intelligence, whether expert system or neural network, requires that users be able to retrieve information quickly and effectively in order to be useful.


To assist in this retrieval, developers have turned to natural language processing. This type of processing uses every..."

Abstract
This paper explains that, although there is a larger amount of evidence supporting the notion that human language develops from natural and inborn processes, socialization and learning is important to the development of language. The paper first describes the basic components of language, which are classified as content morphemes and grammatical morphemes. The paper then presents research to support both arguments that language is innate and that the development of human language is closely linked to the development and transformation of human cognition.

From the Paper
"From day one, we seem naturally equipped to develop and explore language. When a new infant is born, he/she is immediately able to distinguish his/her mother's voice. Young infants start to babble at a very young age as if they are trying to communicate with one's caregivers. Amazingly enough, deaf children initially start to babble as well, but eventually stop verbal communication because they do not hear any feedback. An interesting aspect of language development is an infant's ability to be sensitive to all languages when under the age of 6 months."

Tags:inborn, morphemes, non-communicative, devices, cognition

Abstract
This paper looks at how there is no best way to teach language and how many methods have been adapted and modified throughout the years to find what style best accommodates the need of the learner. It shows that when teaching language, it is imperative that the teacher provides a safe and comfortable learning environment and treats language learning as a social process where comprehensible input is a must when expecting comprehensible output from the students. It explores three methods used to teach language acquisition, the natural approach, communicative language teaching and grammar translation. It outlines each method and includes a discussion of the various techniques utilized for that method. It will also compares while contrasting the three methods and focuses on the various needs of the student.

From the Paper
"The linguistic part of human communication is only a part of the total picture that humans use to relay messages to each other. "At least one applied linguist has gone so far as to claim that, "We communicate so much information non-verbally in conversations that often the verbal aspect of the conversation is negligible" (Rodgers, 2001). Even with all of the body language that is involved with communication, language teaching has chosen to restrict its attention to the linguistic element of human communication, even when the approach is labeled Communicative. The methodological proposal is to provide instructional focus on the non-linguistic aspects of communication, which includes rhythm, speed, pitch, intonation, tone, and hesitation phenomena in speech and gesture, facial expression, posture, and distance in non-verbal messaging. When using the Communicative Language method, the teacher's role is to act as a needs analyst and task designer while the learner is in the roles of improviser and negotiator."

Tags:natural, approach, communicative, grammar, translation

Abstract
This paper examines the various elements of language and memory that are specific to humans, further describing the various categories of memory. First, the paper considers episodic and semantic memory. Then, it discusses the basic function of language in humans and how language led to the development of a more complex brain. Next, it addresses the stages of language production, with an emphasis on the processing approach. Finally, the paper discusses the relationship between semantic memory and language production.

Outline:

The Nature and Function of Semantic Memory
The Basic Functions of Language
Stages of Language Production
The Relationship between Semantic Memory and Language Production

From the Paper
"For example, the episodic memory of witnessing the assassination of President John F. Kennedy in person is inseparable from the circumstances prevailing at the moment of memory formation and most individuals who witnessed that tragic event cannot discuss that event without vividly recalling their emotional reaction at the time that memory was established. However, individuals who learned of the same event from history books and televised documentaries generally do not associate the knowledge of the event with any of the specific circumstances of the moment when their factual memory of the event was formed. By definition, semantic memory allows the individual to remember a much broader range of information than that which is experienced personally."

Tags:episodic memory, semantic memory, animal communication, phonology, morphology

Abstract
Second Language Acquisition is a field of inquiry that abounds in theories, while at the same time no single approach has adequately explained how language acquisition takes place. One reason for this might be that linguists interested in SLA have been trained in different disciplines, such as linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics and neurolinguistics. The paper explains that, naturally, they have approached SLA from very different perspectives and treat all the variables involved in the learning process differently. The situation appears to be very confusing and frustrating. All the present theories, hypotheses, and models are all preliminary work done toward the ultimate goal of a true theory. The paper shows that in this sense, the different approaches taken by linguists and researchers are never worthless. They have uncovered bits and pieces of the whole complexity of language acquisition. Hopefully, the continuing and combined efforts made by linguists and researchers will lead to the ultimate success of establishing the true theory in language acquisition as well as in SLA.

From the Paper
"Linguistics is one of the newest fields of scientific inquiry. It was developed into an independent discipline of social science in the United Sates first "as an offshoot of anthropology" in the first half of the twentieth century in an attempt to investigate into the disappearing American indigenous languages (Lakoff, 2000, p. 2-3). Traditionally, it has been concerned with the analysis of language, namely its phonology, morphology and syntax. Following this tradition, Norm Chomsky in the 1950s put forward his milestone transformational generative grammar (TGG), which assumed "an ideal speaker-listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-community" unaffected by any external factors in his exploration of the Universal Grammar (UG), the general rules of language (Chomsky, 1965, p.3). This is basically an asocial or theoretical view in linguistic studies as opposed to the social view which claims knowing a language also means "knowing how to use that language"(Wardhaugh, 2002, p.3) in social contexts. Adopting either or both of the two views, linguistics and researchers alike have postulated a multitude of theories, approaches, and models in the inquiry into the nature of language and language acquisition, which appear to be conflicting ones fighting against one another."

Tags:Noam, Chomsky, Universal, Grammar, TGG, Connectionism, CAH

Abstract
This paper examines how SQL is designed to work with relational databases and contends that it is essential to understand the nature of relational databases to understand both the way in which SQLs work and why there is a need for SQLs to begin with.

From the paper:

"It should be noted that there are related variations on SQL statements. For example, instead of using an SQL statement, it is possible to represent queries in tabular form; this is also known as the query-by-example (or QBE) and it creates a display that is in empty tabular form, which then requires the searcher to enter the search specifications into appropriate columns. The program then constructs an SQL-like query from the table and executes it (http://cloud.al.ru)."

Tags:databases, company, algorithms, accuracy, processing, system

From the Paper
"Introduction
Expert systems are best known for attempting to imitate human experts through the use of artificial intelligence technology. These systems handle information symbolically rather than as numerical symbols (as in conventional data processing). Expert systems use a knowledge base created by a knowledge engineer containing facts and rules upon which experts in a particular field base their decisions. Expert systems can increase productivity within organizations, and decrease training time for new employees, but such systems require educating those individuals targeted to use the system if the institution is to receive the maximum benefit. Artificial intelligence (AI) technology has been in development since the 1950s. AI seeks to have higher mental tasks normally done by humans done by computers. The limitation ..."

Abstract
This paper explains the process of communication. The source transmits a message that is encoded, or rendered into language, through a particular channel, such as speech, print, or virtually through email. The message is then decoded, and the receiver apprehends the meaning of the message as she or her understands it. The author uses the boss or manager informing his or her employees of a particular administrative directive as an example of vertical, or top-down, communication within an organization. The paper relates that, to determine the best organizational communication process, one must take into consideration the organization?s nature, its goals, and its climate, as well as the personalities that make up its structure.

From the Paper
"Highly creative or human-oriented organizations, such as advertising agencies, often make up their organization in a more diffuse fashion, emphasizing the use of creative teams, deploying multiple uses of a channel based format. This, unlike the previous methods of communication, tends to stimulate gossip and interaction, however the allowance of a certain amount of communication diffusion and informal communication of company objectives may be necessary in some professions to ensure the maximum amount of discussion is achieved, even at an expense of authority or transmitting highly accurate, formalized messages, in contrast to the military's specificity of objectives."

Tags:grapevine, interaction, channel, organization, vertical

Abstract
This paper analyzes chapter 13 of Daniel Dennett's book "Darwin's Dangerous Idea" which speaks on the evolution of language. The paper discusses how the book presents a lengthy discussion of many opposing arguments to language creation based on Darwin's theory of evolution. The paper shows how Dennett particularly focuses on Noam Chomsky's refutation of the existence or involvement of Darwinism ideas on language creation. Dennett's position asserts that language has evolved because of the many processes organisms, particularly human beings, had experienced. - based on Darwin's popular "natural selection process."

From the Paper
"After Dennett has presented his position in the first part of the chapter, he shifted the book's discussion to the opposing arguments of philosophers and scientists about the creation of language. Dennett particularly focused on Noam Chomsky's ideas and theories on how language was created. The main argument presented by Noam Chomsky against the Darwinian theory-based evolution of language is that " language didn't really evolve but just rather suddenly arrived, an inexplicable gift, at best a by-product of the enlargement of the human brain." Chomsky presented his argument based on the "adaptations" that the human brain had undergone, later developing what Chomsky termed as "specialized organ" solely functioning to facilitate language and its processes. Chomskian Linguistics centers on "language learning", or the learning of language through a set of rules already set in human minds. This set of rules came from the "specialized organ" of language faculty Chomsky has formulated, and is labeled as the "Universal Grammar." "

Tags:Tower, of, Generate-and-Test, language, Skinnerian, Popperian, Chomskian, Linguistics