Abstract The modern Chinese history under Mao Zedong is often perceived as a one-dimensional, iron-fisted rule by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) led by Mao. The truth, of course, is not so simple or one-dimensional. It is true that Mao was a larger-than-life figure who was raised to a godlike status through the personality cult built around him. The paper points out that, at the same time, Mao was an incorrigible revolutionary, which in itself ensured that there would never be a dull moment as long as he was in power. Although defying Mao's thoughts in China was a hazardous occupation while he lived, differences of opinion and expression of alternate visions within the CCP about how the country should be governed were not totally absent, even during Mao's lifetime. This paper examines some of the major policy campaigns launched by the CCP during 1949-1980, the difference of opinion or alternate visions expressed by a few, and the consequences they had to face.
From the Paper "In order to understand the dynamics of Communist China, it is worthwhile to briefly examine the background of the Communist movement and see how it came to China. China was a formerly great continental empire ruled by a weakened monarchy in the early part of the 20th century. A republican revolution in 1911 brought an end to the monarchic rule but the country remained beset with internal troubles and foreign interference. Japan, with its imperialist ambitions, sought to make China its protectorate, while local warlords in the country all but made a central government, irrelevant. China entered the World War I on the side of the Allies, hoping to halt the Japanese ambitions on its territory, but was badly let down at the Treaty of Versailles. In such a political environment, a group of Chinese intellectuals?inspired by the October 1917 Communist revolution in Russia, formed the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in 1921. Initially, the Communists joined the Kuomintang nationalists (KMT) who led a fight against the warlords to reunify the country."
Abstract This essay will assume the position that the pre-modern societies of East Asia were isolated and stagnant. It is recognized that this argument is controversial, and dependent upon certain geographical and social assumptions. "isolation" and "stagnation" are relative concepts. It will be seen that two of the main economies of the region - that of China and Japan - possessed flourishing domestic economies and some degree of trade with other economies in the region. However, given the inescapable fact that European colonial powers in this era came to dominate Asia, first economically and then politically, a balanced view of the pre-modern economic history of the region must explain why this came to pass. Key to this explanation is a recognition that, in comparison to the nations of the West, the pre-modern economies of China and Japan were stagnant and isolated.
Tags: ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY (ANCIENT HISTORY) / PRIMITIVE CULTURE (PALEOLITHIC), ANCIENT EMPIRES, economies east asia
Abstract This paper discusses the European invasion of the world and how it impacted the spread of cultures, thoughts, beliefs, ideas, practices and new ways of life. The author debates the type of assimilation that took place and whether the spread of new ways of life was warmly accepted or forced upon the natives. The paper uses William Shakespeare's "The Tempest" as a case in point of a perfect example of the process of occupation of a foreign land in the name of world expansion.
From the Paper "When looking at the results of the European invasion of the world during the Early Modern Period, one must ask if it was all for the best. Then, if it was for the best, whom did it benefit? Taking the actual possession of land is the first stage, then settling in with the indigenous people is second, and when the trust has been won, bringing in more settlers to overpower the indigenous people and transform them into the image of the settlers."
Tags:european, explorers, acculturation, assimilation, culture, language, religion, thought, life
Abstract The paper is basically a timeline of gender roles in Europeanhistory. It shows how women progressed through examples of radicals or people that wrote pieces against women. Included in the paper are Mary Wollstonecraft, Dona Marina, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Pocahontas, and Maria de Pizan.
From the Paper "In all facets of life, males and females have different roles. However, as recently as several hundred years ago, the roles didn?t remotely resemble equality. During the era of exploration and expansion, females were deemed mentally inferior. They were viewed as the caretakers of the household. Even the Declaration of Independence proclaimed, ?All men are created equal,? with nary a mention of a woman's rights. Simply put, gender roles were tragically skewed. But as time passed on, women fought for their sex, and gained a higher role in society. Through the work of revolutionaries like Wollstonecraft and de Pizan, they slowly gained more rights. And as evident by descriptions of Do?a Marina and Pocahontas, they were on the right path to equality."
Abstract The paper addresses how the European interests in Asia and Africa were both similar and different and discusses the major points of contact by the Chinese and Japanese. The paper looks at the impact of slavery on Africa, the Americas and global trade. This work also discusses how Louis XIV's rule set in motion the issues that caused the French Revolution. The paper explores what business and economic issues cause people in capitalist systems to be dissatisfied with the old regimes and also examines how Napoleon's rule of his empire impacted Europe in both positive and negative ways.
From the Paper "It was only possible for this transfer after international trade had ensued. In fact the only time that Europe had an actual interest in common relating to Asia and Africa was during this time and was related to the transfer of the wealth of those two countries to Europe. Walter (1973) reveals that: "Europeans used the superiority of their ships and cannon to gain control of all the world's waterways, starting with the western Mediterranean and the Atlantic coast of North Africa." And it was through controlling the waterways, or the seas that "Europe took the first steps towards transforming the several parts of Africa and Asia into economic satellites." (Walter, 1973) Walter (1973) relates as well that from the very first of the international trading system "Europe assumes the power to make decisions..." (Walter, 1973) In fact the country of Africa had no part in the making of these laws and according to Walter (1973) "African people were simply the victims, for the law recognized them only as transportable merchandise. If the African slave was thrown overboard at sea, the only legal problem that arose was whether or not the slave-ship could claim compensation from the insurers!" (Walter, 1973)"
Abstract In this article, the writer examines the history of foreign intervention in Mexico, to the present. The writer looks at power relationships and the impact of poverty. The writer also discusses the changing position of women in modern Mexican history.
Abstract This paper takes a look at the European state from the perspective of Francis Fukuyama's famous lecture "The End of History?". The paper discusses the idea of the end of history and the triumph of liberalism. The paper further reviews why democracy has failed in countries such as Iraq and Afghanistan. The paper also discusses whether the 'democratic nation-state' has a future.
Outline:
The World of Ideas:
The End of History ?
Ideologies
Democracy and Tyranny
Realism
Pre-Modern Societies:
The Pressure of the West
Definition
Democratic Failure
New Authoritarianism
Modernity:
The 'New Managerial State'
World Government
Modern Societies
The Need for Ideologies
From the Paper "Writing in 1989 before the collapse of the Berlin wall, Francis Fukuyama declared in his article "The end of History ?" that the flow of events that had occurred lately constituted the ultimate proof of the total victory of the idea of liberalism. The exhaustion of systematic viable alternatives - or alternative ideologies - to economic and political liberalism, such as fascism and communism, showed that liberal democracy was the perfect, ultimate ideology. This perfect idea could by no means be seriously challenged by other ideologies - and the total defeat of fascism and communism in the 20th century proved it - nor could it be improved in any way since liberal democracy was already in itself a perfection. The total victory of this ideology in the realm of ideas would necessarily lead to "the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government" (Fukuyama, 1989:2). This belief of the spread of Western liberal democracy around the globe (or in the material world), along with the belief that liberal democracies do not fight one against the other because they are interdependent and tied by the 'common marketization' result in the assertion that the number of major conflicts will decrease dramatically and that the main concern of international life will no longer be politics or military strategics but technical issue-solving economics. History, defined as the History of ideology (Hegel), has come to an end, at least for the part of the world that has realized the principles of liberal democracy. The former alleged inner contradictions of liberalism have been resolved by the decreasing importance of the class issue. At the time Fukuyama wrote this article, it was followed by a major outcry and criticism. But the idea was not new. Actually, Fukuyama admits that he has merely resurrected the idea of Georg Friedrich Hegel who, in 1806, following the battle of Jena, and the victory of Napoleon's army, declared that History has come to an end. Hegel saw History as a dialectical process with a beginning, a middle, and an end. The History of ideas shows that mankind (or 'the Spirit') "has progressed through a series of primitive stages of consciousness (the last stage being the stage of philosophy) on his path to the present and that these stages corresponded to concrete forms of social organization" (tribal, slave owning, theocratic, finally democratic egalitarian societies). In the stage of philosophy the Spirit is self-conscious, that is to say that the Spirit knows itself as a Spirit, through philosophy. And this ultimate stage corresponds to the social organization of liberal democracy and its universalization. We know young Hegel's admiration for the French Revolution and we can easily understand his excitement at the idea that those revolutionary principles would finally be realized and spread, thanks to Napoleon's victory. Those principles include liberty, equality, rational behaviour on the part of the individual. At that time, there was no viable alternatives to these ideas. Other ideologies came later... to finally disappear, hence postponing the awareness that History has actually come to an end in 1806. On the other hand, we can also assume that young Hegel was also longing for a nation-state embodied by France, and which a liberal democracy implies. (He also looked at the Prussian monarchy with admiration). But the end of History at the time of Hegel did not necessarily imply the same thing, as long as the state was concerned, as the end of History at the time of Fukuyama, as I have already mentioned and I shall return to this point later."
Abstract This paper traces the roots of modern nationalism back to the French Revolution and Napoleonic wars and describes how its ideologies affected Europe during the 19th and 20th centuries. The writer of this paper defines nationalism as the right of every citizen and every nation to exist in freedom and to develop its own singularity. The strongest catalyst for European nationalism emerged in the 19th century with the industrial revolution. This paper examines the pros and cons of modern nationalism and discusses how the central European revolution of 1848 sparked a bonfire of nationalism. This paper also explores the effects of nationalism during Hitler's reign.
From the Paper "For modern nationalism was born in the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. Effectively controlled by the French republic during the Reign of Terror, nationalism helped repel France's foreign foes. Meanwhile, all across Europe, patriots tried to kindle nationalist flames in the war against Napoleon. So by 1815 there were already clues of how nationalism could spread and quickly develop. During this early age of nationalism, its proponents usually believed that every nation, like every citizen, had the right to exist in freedom and to develop its singularity."
Abstract ModernEuropean / Western education finds in its current form, roots that stretch back to Socrates and further to the earliest forms of oral histories and story-telling. The western model of education is based almost exclusively upon lecture, experience and review, is graduated in complexity and content over time, and covers, in general, approximately 12 years of a student's life. The content of lessons, regardless of context and subject, generally follow a specific structure with a philosophy of development that finds its origins in Locke, Rousseau, and Pasteur. During the 19th century, on the heels of the Age of Enlightenment and through the Romantic Era, education underwent fundamental changes. Many different factors influenced the form and content of that education, most significantly, perhaps, being that of nationalizing and standardizing the educational system. It is the purpose of this paper to examine the history of educational systems during the 19th century Europe, differences in gender-involvement, the influence of Napoleon, Locke, Rousseau, Pasteur and other thinkers from the Enlightenment and Romantic periods, all with the intent of demonstrating how our modern model of education has been shaped and determined by these factors.
Abstract This paper examines how the history of East Asia in the modern period from 1400 to 1900 is commonly viewed through the lens of the Europeans who came to trade, convert, loot, and conquer during this time. It discusses how although it cannot be denied that the arrival and eventual dominance of the Europeans over the international relations of the Sinic world was of great significance in the history of the region, it may be argued that simply by shifting our perspective we may obtain a more accurate analysis of this era in East Asian history.
From the Paper " The history of East Asia in the modern period - from 1400 to 1900 - is commonly viewed through the "lens" of the Europeans who came to trade, convert, loot and conquer during this time. While it cannot be denied that the arrival and eventual dominance of the Europeans over the international relations of the Sinic world was of great significance in the history of the region, it may be argued that simply by shifting our perspective we may obtain a more accurate analysis of this era in East Asian history. "
An analysis of traditional and modern societies during the European expansion, through a review of ?European Expansion and the Civilization of Modernity? written by S. N. Elsenstadt.
Abstract This paper examines modernism in Europe and the rise of socialism in non-Western societies. The paper reviews S. N. Elsenstadt's ?European Expansion and the Civilization of Modernity? and discusses Elsenstadt's arguments regarding the changes in the European expansion in non-Western societies, from being modernist to socialist, even traditionalist, societies. The paper argues that the retardation of modernism in non-Western societies is not exactly the abrupt stoppage of the European expansion.
From the Paper ""European expansion and the civilization of modernity" by S. N. Elsenstadt provides a through discussion and analysis of the dynamics concerning the European expansion, centering in particular on its effects in non-Western or Asian societies. Tracing the history of the European expansion from the emergence of industrialization to the development of capitalism in Western societies, the author seeks to determine what caused the seemingly contradicting development of the so-called "expansionist" movement of modernization in Europe. That is, instead of spreading modernization and capitalism in Asian societies, what occurred was the rise of socialism, which is a new form of society that overturns the basic premises of capitalism-in effect, modernization."
Abstract A book report about E.L. Jones' work on the historical economy of Europe, "The European Miracle". It explains the author's view of the European and Asian economies during the medieval, renaissance, and early modern eras, until the end of the Industrial Revolution. The book focuses on the ecological conditions (geography, weather, etc.) that made it possible for Europe to develop a technology-centered, multistate trade economy, as opposed to Asia's paradigmatic agrarian unified economy.
Abstract This paper addresses several aspects of European economic history, focusing primarily on the medieval period. The paper includes a discussion of the role of the fairs of Champagne and the effect of the Black Death.
Abstract This paper explains some of the reasoning behind the growth of digital television is that it allows potential access to the Internet, online shopping, and e-mail. The author points out that many people believe mistakenly that digital technology is something very new, but they forget that smaller digital items, such as watches, have been around for quite some time. The paper reports that many individuals in the UK would like to have digital television, but the individuals, who are not interested in the service, are not interested in the additional services, such as the Internet, and are concerned about the cost of television programming and the types of channels and variety of entertainment they would be able to receive for free without having to purchase a subscription.
Table of Contents
Introduction and Theoretical Background
Introduction
Theoretical Background
Review of the Literature
Introduction
ModernEuropean Broadcasting History Deregulation and its Effects
Pluralism in a Free Market Economy
The Advent of Digital Television Technology in Europe
Industry and Audience Behavior
Viewing Trends
Consumer Expenditure
Plans for Switchover in the UK
Methodology
Discussion of Findings
Conclusion
From the Paper 'This chapter will look at many of the findings from a survey conducted in 2001 which will tie into the information in the literature review and serve to give a complete picture of what is happening with the digital television market and why. The study mentioned in the methodology section in chapter three provided many individuals with a great deal of information. Not only did many of the authors in the literature review either rely on or refer to information that was gained in this study, but the government utilized this study as well so that they could determine the answers to some of the more pressing questions about individual's television preferences and whether they would be willing to switch to digital television without an argument.'
Abstract This paper explains that historians argue that the economic crises experienced during the early-modern period across most of Europe and the subsequent population growth, which led to an inability for many of these individual markets to support their respective populations, was a type of Malthusian trap. The author points out that the Malthusian trap is the principle, based on Malthus' theory of population and economics, which observes that man is inclined to propagate beyond his means to support the population. The paper relates that the application of this principle to early modern Europe is often a misguided attempt to redirect the historical research to a socio-historic perspective rather than a purely economic perspective. The author concludes that, while certain markets in Europe might indeed have become over-populated with respect to their ability to provide basic levels of sustenance for their populations, other countries, such as England, did not suffer such a population growth and, furthermore, managed to maintain relatively stable economic growth in spite of Europe's overall economic decline during this period. The paper includes an annotated bibliography.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Malthus on Population Growth
Technological Impact
Conclusion
From the Paper "In an artificial economy established in an economic lab such set ratios can be accurately predictive. However, in the natural environment, there are many external factors that would affect change on his model, and did affect change. Prices are a key oversight in his theory. While the basic premise that population growth may outstrip the growth in food productivity was true based on the circumstances within which he operated, he didn't account for the economics of food productivity to drive an increase in production worldwide that offset any local market conditions and shortages in supply."
