Abstract The paper compares ideas of Mencius and Xunzi in relation to Confucius. The paper examines how Mencius and Xunzi were Confucian in outlook but Mencius had an optimistic view of humannature in great contrast with Xunzi. Mencius was harder on those with authority, whereas Xunzi saw the Dao as important for everyone, and with people of all kinds able to radically transform themselves.
From the Paper "Mencius and Xunzi offered philosophies that show that they do belong to the same Chinese civilization and that they inherited the ideas of Confucius. (551-479 BC) However, they departed from Confucius in ways that would help to create other lines of Chinese philosophy. In all three, one sees a division between the social and the individual, but also, thought on how leadership influenced the individual, and the role of both individuals and the ruler in making a better society of better people."
Abstract The writer of this well-researched paper defines humannature as the full scale of human behavior that is believed to remain constant for long periods in time and does not differ in the context of the various cultures that are seen in the world. This paper examines various theories on humannature, in which each possesses a distinctive view on the subject, including that of Plato. According to Plato, there is an intellectual soul that is resident in the brain of an individual. This paper analyzes the topic of humannature by focusing on the opinions and theories of Thomas Hobbes and David Hume. Thomas Hobbes is considered one of the individuals responsible for the transition from the medieval way of thinking to the modern thought process in Great Britain. This paper touches on Hobbes' book "Leviathan" and his views on humannature which are very clear. Hobbes' conception of humannature is a mechanistic one. Hobbes contends that the study of the movements of the physical bodies would prove to be enough in explaining all that goes on in the universe. Hume's approach to humannature differs from that of Hobbes. Hume contends that we, as humans, can only make inferences on what would happen in the future by what we have experienced in the past. The writer contends that Hume progresses from there to say that we would be incorrect to believe that this knowledge and experience of the past is enough to justify what would happen in the future.
Table of Contents:
Hobbes
Limitations in Hobbes' View of HumanNature Hume
Ethics of Reciprocity
References
From the Paper "There have been several theories that have been put forward on human nature and each of them possesses a distinctive view on human nature. The earliest views on human nature of substance come from Plato, whose thoughts on life were influenced by Socrates. In the view of Plato there is an intellectual soul that is resident in the brain of an individual and an appetitive beast that is to be found in the belly and genitals of the individual. The role of the former was in keeping the latter in check and over a period of time escape from this uncomfortable cohabitation by welcoming death. This dualist theory of Plato did have immense on the thoughts on human nature and that time and this influence can be seen in Christian theology with the Gospel of John. The extension of these beliefs of Plato on human nature had their influence on Descartes and led him to formulate the theory that man is made up of a soul that thinks and a body that is an extension of it."
Abstract This essay examines two aspects of Marx's philosophy; firstly, his view of humannature and, secondly, why he is critical of the ideas of human rights and political rights and emancipation. The paper argues that Marx's view of humannature underpins his thought and work and shows that Marx is critical of human rights and political rights and emancipation because he believes there to be a greater goal.
Abstract This paper presents a review of Joseph Wood Krutch's "HumanNature and the Human Condition". The paper discusses the author's main themes, provides a summary of the work, and addresses the strengths and weaknesses of the collection of essays as a whole.
From the Paper "Throughout history human beings have attempted to produce theories of knowledge and learning. Some of the most basic questions such theories have attempted to answer concern what knowledge is, where knowledge comes from and how we know what is true. Plato theorized that only things that do not change, that are immutable can be known. Limitations of the human senses and perception have always played into theories on knowing. So too has human capacity for ration and more..."
Abstract This paper discusses the role that humannature plays in the actions taken by people in their lives. The paper uses the different characters in Joseph Conrad's book "The Secret Agent," to show varying levels of morality and goodness. The author also argues that individuals actions, affect the lives, and morality of those around them.
From the paper:
"Verloc is a slightly more complex character. Immediately one can see that he possesses flawed morals because of the shop he ran. For all purposes, it was a primitive sex shop. It may not have been as gaudy as the sex shops of today are, but its clientele was similar; either young men with too much time and money, or older men who had fallen on hard times. When the reader learns that Verloc runs the shop as a means to cover up his real profession as a terrorist, one no longer accepts his poor moral values, but must question whether he has any at all. Verloc's only redeeming value is that he married Winnie and helps her support her feeble brother."
Abstract This paper examines the views of Mencius and Xunzi, Chinese philosophers from c. 300 B.C., who belonged to the school of thought of Confucius (551-479 BC). It compares their differing approaches to humannature and relates that while Mencius saw the individual as fundamentally good, Xunzi's viewed humannature as bad and in need of care and correction. The paper addresses the influence of these two extremely influential philosophers, whose contrasting approaches continue to be seen today in Chinese civilization. The paper concludes that their thoughts on humannature are timeless and, thus, they will continue to be reviewed and discussed for many years to come.
Outline:
Introduction
HumanNature as Corruptible
Man as Weak and Bad
Implications over Time
Concluding Remarks
From the Paper "Mencius spent years moving from court to court and we presume that he had many chances to see how feudal rulers chose to lead. He was a sought after advisor to different rulers towards much thinking on what worked and what did not to restore order, for example, or prevent future troubles. He seems to have come up with something like the Social Contract that shaped Western thinking in the modern era in a model of a decent kind of leadership and attention to the needs of life and protecting citizens to which individuals could adhere. If a decent environment was not provided, then the people should be expected to overthrow those in power towards new leadership. In the view of Mencius, a ruler must show jen in humaneness, humanity and benevolence, as a very old Chinese concept indeed. (Chan Jen) There should also be the yi of righteousness and a sense of duty, if a ruler wanted to see righteousness, cooperation and industriousness amongst his subjects."
Abstract In this article, the writer declares that early proponents of natural law argued that people have common sense and are born with an intuitive knowledge of right and wrong. This paper discusses that human rights are those rights that are based on humannature. The writer examines how human rights grew from natural rights. It argues that conceptions of right and wrong are not based on an unchanging, eternal order, but are negotiable; that is, open to revision as the years go by and times change. It is seen, for example, how women and children have used natural rights arguments to gain rights that formerly were denied them.
The writer concludes that human rights have evolved from natural law and natural rights and that human rights are intimately connected to morality and ethics.
Outline:
Introduction
Natural Law and the Concept of Rights
Changing the Law in Response to a New Moral Awareness
Human Rights for Women
Juvenile Death Penalty
Rights versus Utilitarianism
Conclusion
From the Paper "More than anyone else the philosopher John Locke influenced the shape and form of democracy in the United States. He argued that human beings have certain fundamental rights, which governments cannot take away. He argued that no individual has a natural right to rule over others, and that a person's natural state is a state of freedom. Freedom, he explained, was not the same as license or permission to do whatever one wants; rather, freedom is based on the "law of reason which places precise limits on our behavior". Not everyone is able to enjoy their natural rights because other people and the government sometimes violate them; therefore, Locke suggested that men assemble and choose leaders who can be trusted to protect their natural rights. The primary function of government ought to be to protect the natural rights of its citizens, to protect citizens from other states, and to establish and maintain internal order. He suggested that oppressive governments (governments that had broken trust with the people) could, and should, be overthrown; in other words, sometimes, revolution is justified--especially if the government violates the natural rights of its citizens. In questions where natural rights are not the issue, then the will of the majority should prevail. His ideas profoundly inspired the Founding Fathers and the Declaration of Independence; moreover, the Constitution was written mainly to protect the people's rights from government interference, to insure internal order, and to establish defense."
Abstract The paper shows that traditional philosophers believed that the community should be given preference over the individual while the liberal philosophers suggested that the individual rights were more integral to human life. It describes how the logic behind their beliefs was based on their conceptions of humannature and the political values they put forth came from this same understanding. The paper shows that although philosophers and political theorists like Aristotle and Hobbes seem to epitomize the creative potential of the human mind, the history of ideas can be understood as the exploration of a conceptual space rather than as a sequence of more-or-less unique works. The paper seeks answers for questions such as: are humansnaturally selfish or sociable? and, What is the basis of humannature?
From the Paper "While Aristotle understood politics and humans through a rational belief and logic Hobbes had a different perspective. Hobbes argued that human beings are fundamentally equal and endowed with certain natural and inalienable rights;[Morgan, chp 12] defended the idea of a state based on the role of law;[ch 13] maintained a basic distinction between the public and private;[ch 14] held that a primary task of good government was to secure a minimum welfare for all citizens;[ch 14] affirmed that civil laws govern actions, not thoughts or conscience;[ch 15] insisted on the utility of toleration;[chp 16] and advanced a form of representative government based on the idea that subjects' obligation to obey the civil law stems from the fact that each subject, in obeying the sovereign's command, is obeying a power that the subject himself could be seen as having consented to and authorized.[ch 13]"
Abstract This paper reviews the conception of innate humannature in several authors. To Emerson, innate humannature implied being an individual, free from imitation of society. Joyce searched for meaning in the face of disillusionment and disappointment, where there was incongruity between the real and the ideal. Didion sought self-respect in the light of her experiences. Hobbes saw self-interest and selfishness as innate humannature. Camus saw life as absurd. None of them understood humannature in the light of God.
Abstract This paper compares Confucian concept with Buddhist concept of "humannature". Buddhism emphasizes the spirituality of the individual, and is a more "inward-oriented" philosophy. Therefore, as will be argued, while Confucianism represents "humannature" as external actions and rituals shaping the inner man, Buddhism represents the "Buddha nature" as the inner man achieving ultimate selflessness through meditation and reflection.
Abstract The paper examines the role of language in the development of humannature, with particular reference to the function of thought. The paper shows that our nature is largely the consequence of the social interactions that we experience as we develop our lives and not the result of some wide ranging and all encompassing humannature. The paper goes on to to show how, while language is indeed an essential component in the production of thought, it is nonetheless incapable of explaining human development and outcomes in every instance.
From the Paper "What is it that makes who we are? Moreover, how can we account for the varied and differing actions of human beings and the general development of the human race as a whole? These are questions that have plagued academic authorities since the time of the ancient Greeks. Every academic discipline has in some measure or another attempted to explain and account for the essential features that make human beings distinct from other forms of life. In particular, sociologists have traditionally taken a central role in explaining the issues above. Above all, sociologists attempt to explain the world in which we live through the social actions and effects that we all encounter. 'No man is an Island' is certainly central to this conception. The society in which we live directly affects the manner of our development as a human being and thus can also affect out 'nature'."
Abstract This paper is a critical and historiographical examination of the nature of warfare and the natures of the men who wage it. It analyzes the fundamental moral prohibitions against warfare and violence and the circumstances and situations in which the human responses of sympathy and morality can be broken down. It looks at how philosophers and scholars have long debated the fundamental tenets of humannature and how some, including Thomas Hobbes, argue that man is naturally barbaric and that social constraints are necessary to restrain these violent tendencies. Others, such as Immanuel Kant, contend that man is inherently benevolent and that the group dynamics of society should seek to harness these altruistic forces.
From the Paper "However, certain factors can overwhelm and neutralize these moral responses, thereby effecting a fundamental transformation of the people involved in the acts of violence. War often results from the manifestation of the destructive, cruel, and violent tendencies that coexist within all humans along with the restraining forces of sympathy, compassion, and respect. Glover maintains that the moral resources typically restrain the savage impulses of humankind, but when these moral resources collapse in the midst of war, barbarism and cruelty rise to the foreground. In his descriptions of various instances of torture and cruelty in times of war, Glover makes a compelling case for the perverse appeal of such cruelty for many people, particularly emotionally stunted males seeking to buoy their self-confidence through the assertion of their power over weaker creatures."
Tags:nature, violence, nazis, stalin, conflict, society
Abstract This paper is a comparison/contrast of the Confucian concept of humannature with the Buddhist concept of Buddha-nature. The two concepts are extremely different, but they still have much in common.
Abstract This paper will show, Confucianism viewed humannature in its social context. From this point of view, humans are social beings first and individuals second. As a result, Confucianism emphasized proper conduct and outward behaviour as practical virtues. In contrast, Buddhism was a philosophy of the individual. Instead of emphasizing humans' roles as social creatures, Buddhism stressed the spiritual aspect of human life. In particular, it concentrated on meditation and reflection to see beneath the surface of things to the truth of reality.
Abstract This paper examines Hobbes' state of nature and theory of humannature, a criticism of Hegel's theory of freedom is also offered. It contends that Hobbes' theory does, in some respects, undermine Hegel and that much of Hegel's theory appears to challenge Hobbes.
Tags: hegel, hobbes, freedom, state of nature, the leviathan, humannature, free will
