An examination of the "Elgin Marbles", ancient Parthenon figures that were claimed by British archaeologists in the 18th century during Greek civil strife, and the debate over whether or not they should be returned to Greece.
Abstract This paper examines the controversy that exists over the "Elgin Marbles", which were originally part of the Greek Parthenon's frieze, that were taken by Lord Elgin of England in the late 18th century. The paper takes the position that the statues and other artifacts which currently are housed in English museums, are the rightful property of the Greek people and should be returned to Greece. The paper is divided into several sections. The first gives a history of the Elgin Marbles and how they came into possession of the English in the first place. A brief history of the Parthenon is also given in this section, with a detailed examination of the architecture and the ancient politics that surrounded its construction. The paper then spans the history of the Parthenon up until the 18th century, including the building losing its roof and several architectural designs due to the Ottoman Turks using it as an armory during their control of Greece. The paper discusses how British archaeologists claimed the pieces in the 1800s, fearful that the Greeks could not maintain such classical pieces of work. The paper ends with a section discussing the latest improvements that are underway in Greece to house the "Elgin Marbles" if an international agreement can be reached that will send the pieces of the Parthenon back to Athens. The concept of Greek pride and honor in their ancient ancestry is discussed and how originally, when Greece was unable to maintain such pieces, the idea to keep them in England was the correct decision to be made.
From the Paper "The mere thought of The Parthenon evokes an image of dignity and pride for not only the current Greek citizens who look upon their ancient ancestors with honor, but for the entirety of Western civilization who view The Parthenon as a representation of the greatness that can be achieved by Western culture. Using this Western concept of pride as a basis, it is clear to see why the British government has its roots in claiming that the treasures of the Parthenon would be better served in a more upscale environment such as The British Museum rather then an unfinished Acropolis museum in Athens. Nevertheless, the removal of The Parthenon artifacts, which are known as The Elgin Marbles since the works of art were "purchased" by the English noble Lord Thomas Bruce of Elgin in 1801, was in essence an infraction upon the Greek populace's right to their ancestors' culture. In large part due to the importance of The Parthenon and the culture that it represents to Greece, the rightful place of the Elgin Marbles is in Athens where the pieces of architecture were always intended to remain when they were completed. "
Abstract This essay surveys the literature for opinions on the purpose of the mysterious and appealing marble figures of the Bronze Age in the Aegean islands of the Cyclades. Since the sculptors left no writing, scholars are left to speculate based on evidence from nearby cultures. Arguments from many scholars are compared to try to find the best solutions to the problem. The paper includes photographs of the figures.
From the Paper "Van Schaik points to the fact that too few of the figures were found outside of burial contexts for the figures to be a assigned to a cult of the Mother Goddess like the one in Anatolia. However, as stated earlier, the similarity in form of the Cycladic figures to those of Anatolia cannot be discounted, whether or not one believes that they serve the same purpose".
Abstract This paper discusses exhibitions in the British Museum. Specifically, it focuses on the debate surrounding the Elgin Marbles. The paper offers an objective exploration on why these sculptures should remain in the museum.
From the Paper "It is clear the Elgin Marbles are incredible works of art, and they deserve to be seen by the greatest number of people possible. Personally, I did not know of this controversy regarding the marbles, and reading about it gave me a clearer understanding of ancient artifacts and their ownership and display. While I can certainly understand why Greece would like the artifacts back, it seems that if that occurred, it would simply open up an assortment of problems for every museum in the world. Where did their displays come from, and who owns them now? If one country can reclaim treasures, then what would stop other countries from doing the same thing? It seems that museums are the best place for these artifacts, because they take care of them, they allow the public to view them, and they protect them. I am not so sure that would happen with many of the artifacts if they were returned to their native countries."
Abstract This paper examines the art, form and traits of the carved marble female figures attributed to the Schuster Master whose real name is unknown and is identified only by the style of his work. It shows how these remarkable pieces dating back to 2400 BCE and sculpted in marble serve as reminders of the evolution of ancient Greek art and all have a prominent, linear nose, a curvaceous forehead and hints of pregnancy in the belly. The Schuster Master may have intended simply to convey the power of pregnancy or of the female spirit but Cycladic art is deceptively minimalist and original pieces, painted and decorated have exhibited the sophisticated understanding of the artist for his media.
From the Paper "However, the model's arms are tightly crossed and drawn across her torso. This pose is reposed, relaxed, resolute, and refined. The folded arms form a square that balances perfectly with the otherwise cylindrical nature of the statue. The elbows are pointy, perhaps suggesting a stubborn nature. This is no pushover. The Cycladic woman sticks to her guns; she is an effective leader. Her decisions are final, evident by her stoic stance. The artist's lack of detail in depicting her form also indicates a lack of frivolity in the female personality."
Abstract This paper examines and analyzes Nathaniel Hawthorne's "House of the Seven Gables", and "The Marble Faun". It presents the author's criticism of both works and supports that criticism with published criticism.
Abstract This paper analyzes the 1789 marble bust of Thomas Jefferson by French sculptor Jean-Antoine Houdon. It discusses the work as a reflection of the philosophy of the Enlightenment period. The author also explores the artistic attributes of the sculpture.
From the Paper "Jean-Antoine Houdon was the premiere French sculptor of the Enlightenment period. He was able to incorporate the new ideas of the Enlightenment into his art, thereby reflecting the period and culture of the Enlightenment, a period when reason was seen as the ..."
Abstract This paper discusses the achievements of Bernini Gianlorenzo, who was a superbly talented Baroque sculptor and architect. The paper shows how Bernini's combination of great talent in multiple fields, spirituality and versatility all combined to give him a range and a quality which helped to make his work outstanding. It particularly focuses on his best known work - his marble "Ecstasy of St. Teresa."
From the Paper "As we have seen, Bernini's combination of great talent in multiple fields, spirituality, and versatility all combined to give him a range and a quality which helped to make him outstanding not only among his peers, but for all time. Moreover, his incredible talent with stone enabled him to give the appearance of life and movement to cold hard marble. To this day, we cannot look at his Ecstasy of St. Teresa without feeling some of the ecstasy, and feeling that we too might one day ascend to commune with God."
Abstract This paper discusses art masterpieces that not only honored the gods and decorated, but also served as ways for a nation to preserve its history. In particular, the author compares two pieces of art found in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, "The Outer Coffin of Henettawy" and "The Marble Sarcophagus with the Triumph of Dionysus and the Seasons". The author gives the history of each of these masterpieces and compares the similarities and differences of each piece.
From the Paper "The coffin of Henettawy originated from ancient Egypt, and was roughly from the year 1000 B.C. during the 3rd intermediate period. The coffin was made from wood and decorated with paint (Metropolitan Museum of Art). These coffins were significant during the Egyptian period because they served as the resting place for the human body while the soul was allowed a peaceful transition to the afterlife. It is important to notice that this coffin is not as elaborate of well decorated as many Egyptian coffins of the time. Generally, this suggests that the person buried inside was not as important as either a pharaoh, high priest, or someone else in the upper echelon of society."
Abstract In this paper the author analyzes and examines Nathaniel Hawthorne; his life, career, contributions, and works. The author contends that the moral and psychological issues that Hawthorne examines, through the conflicts his characters experience, are often intricate and mysterious and furthermore, that Hawthorne skillfully creates an atmosphere of ambiguity and complexity that makes it difficult to reduce his writings to a simple view of life.
From the paper:
?Hawthorne then moved to Lennox, Massachusetts, where they lived for the following year. It was here that Hawthorne made the acquaintance of Herman Melville, who was writing his first novel, Moby Dick. Hawthorne greatly impacted Melville's writings, and the dedication of Moby Dick to Hawthorne is evidence of the magnitude of this impact.?
Abstract This paper briefly examines the history of ancient Greek art. It focuses on several periods - Archaic Period, Early Classical Period, Golden Age, Late Classical Period and Hellenistic Period. Different types of art forms are discussed and examined how they developed during these periods. The influence of other cultures on Greek art is also analyzed, namely Middle Eastern and Egyptian.
Outline
I. Introduction
A. History
B. Cultural influence
II. Archaic Period (600-480 B.C.)
A. Egyptian influence
B. Middle Eastern influence
III. Early Classical Period (480-450 B.C.)
A. New humanism led to balanced human form
B. Marble and bronze figurines
IV. Golden Age (450-400 B.C.)
A. Temples of the Athenian acropolis
B. Parthenon sculptures
V. Late Classical Period (400-300 B.C.
A. Expression of emotion
B. Individualization and three-dimensional movement
VI. Hellenistic Period (323-31 B.C.)
A. Nike and Aphrodite
B. Terra-cotta figurines
VII. Conclusion
A. Importance of masterpiece copies
B. Influence of Greek culture
From the Paper "The earlier great cultures of Egypt and the Near East were making art long before the Greeks and much of the early Greek art looks Egyptian, with its stiff and profiled poses and boxy geometric designs. Moreover, the Greeks borrowed the ideas, motifs, conventions, and skills from these earlier civilizations (Tansy 1996). However, it was the Greeks who made the leap into naturalism and in their representations of the human body created an ideal of perfectly balanced proportions that has never been improved upon. Although, we often speak of Greek and Roman in the same breath, the greatest accomplishments of Greek art were five centuries old by the time the Romans began to copy them. "
Abstract The Greeks honored the gods through sculptures. This paper examines the triumphs and advances of Classical Greek sculpture during the different periods in Greek history.
Outline
Introduction to Classical Greek Sculpture in Historical Perspective
Transition from Archaic Period to Early Classical (ca. 480 BCE) favoring Contrapposto over Koroi.
High Classical Period (450-430 BCE) Symbolized by Athenian Acropolis.
Late Classical Period (430-323 BCE), between Peloponnesian War and the Death of Alexander the Great,
Conclusion: Hellenism Marked by Influence of Alexander the Great's Travels.
From the Paper "Rigid kouroi and kourai softened into the marble marvels of the works of Phidias and Polycletius. The pursuit of perfection was itself honed like the artists? bronze and stone palettes as larger-than-life statues graced majestic monuments and temples. Increasingly realistic bodies, viewable from all possible angles, epitomize Classical Greek sculpture. The Archaic period preceding it demonstrated the Greek values of perfection and symmetry; these qualities were held under scrutiny during the following centuries. Close scrutiny of the human form in action and as a stationary body yielded tremendous improvements in the effectiveness and accessibility of sculpture during the Classical Age of Greece. "
From the Paper "Donatello's bronze David (c. 1430) and Michelangelo's marble David (1504) are, nominally, treatments of the same subject. Yet -- considering the fact that both drew on the same iconographic tradition, were made within seventy-five years of each other, were created in Florence and credited with political meanings, and were important landmarks in the influence of classical art on the Renaissance -- it would be difficult to imagine two sculptures that were more different. A comparison of these two works will demonstrate how the sculptors made iconographic choices suited to the functions of their statues and how each man took a different approach to the integration of the antique into his style."
From the Paper "The tradition of Italian Renaissance portraiture derived from numerous sources: formal Gothic tomb sculpture, the realism of Northern European painters, Roman sculptural portraits, and Humanist scholars' notions of the significance of portraiture in antiquity. As in most undertakings of an intellectual or artistic nature, the Italian Humanists searched for sanctions for portraiture in the literature and art of antiquity. A brief review of these influences on medallion and bust portraits provides an overview of the origins of Renaissance portraiture.
Individualized Italian Renaissance portraiture began to develop as early as the last quarter of the thirteenth century. Portraits from that period are found mainly on tomb monuments and the portrayals were usually highly idealized, conforming to the stylistic dictates of the International Gothic style. White has.."
A contrast of the nature and development of the main characters (Donatello and Billy) and the themes (long-term spiritual growth vs. sudden forgiveness in world of evil and violence).
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 2 sources, 1994, $ 47.95
From the Paper "This study will contrast the main characters (Donatello vs. Billy) and themes (long-term spiritual growth vs. sudden forgiveness) from Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Marble Faun and Herman Melville's Billy Budd. Both books deal with acts of violence---sudden murders by Billy and Donatello---and both books deal with the changes that those murders bring to the main character. This study will focus on the differences in the ways the two authors explore spiritual change and growth.
The first major difference between Donatello and Billy Budd is that Billy is described as being an angel-like or even Christ-like figure, while Donatello is described as half-man and half-faun. This difference is important because it affects the way the two characters develop.
Hawthorne compares Donatello with the statue of the Faun, a..."
Abstract Works of art of the Egyptians and Greeks in the Hellenic era. Shared characteristics of the two ancient societies. Describes Egyptian statue of "Ranofer," a limestone sculpture of a standing male. Compares it to the Greek "Kouros," a life-sized marble figure of a male youth. Human orientation of Greek art.
From the Paper "Comparison of Two Sculptures
The ancient Egyptians and the Greeks of the Hellenic era shared several important characteristics. Among them were a complex system of gods, each requiring his or her own ritual worship, and a love of the monumental in terms of architecture and selected art forms. As Laurie S. Adams (p. 73) has commented, both groups followed certain canons and conventions in sculpture, leading to creations that were life-sized or larger, monumental and powerful, and firmly rooted within the guiding sociocultural ethos in which they were produced. This report will compare two works of art. The first is an Egyptian statute of Ranofer, a limestone sculpture of a standing male produced in about 2750-2625, B.C. (Gardner, p. 54). The second sculpture to be discussed is known as Kouros, a life-sized figure of a male ..."
