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Noam Chomsky's Theory of Universal Grammar, 2006.
An analysis of the pros and cons of Noam Chomsky's theory of universal grammar.
1,125 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 3 sources, $ 44.95
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Abstract
In recent years Noam Chomsky has become more famous as a political activist and critic of various American governments than he has ever been as a linguist. Be that as it may there was a time when Chomsky was one of the leading linguistic theorists in America and this paper looks at arguably his most important scholarly contribution to that area of inquiry. Specifically this paper explores the strengths and weaknesses of Chomsky's theory of universal grammar, in particular what it reveals and what it does not reveal or rather what it obscures.
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Theory of Universal Pragmatics, 2002.
The following paper examines and critically analyzes Jorgen Habermas? theory of universal pragmatics.
2,300 words (approx. 9.2 pages), 11 sources, APA, $ 70.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the study of general and universal aspects of language with specific reference to Jorgen Habermas? rules for using and understanding language rationally. The goal of universal pragmatics is to identify and reconstruct conditions of possible understanding. The advantages and disadvantages of Habermas? ?Universal Pragmatics? are discussed. It is of the writer?s opinion that Habermas' emphasis on systematization and organization at times forces linguistic phenomena into pre-established categories, which leaves little room for nuances, details or humanly necessary embellishments.
From the Paper
?This concept when adequately applied extends across the boundaries of culture and language, e.g. two Englishmen would use the same formulations to communicate in English, as would two Frenchmen?in French.? In this seminal work, in the book, ?Communication and Evolution of Society,? Habermas provides a simple construct for ideal communication (Habermas 1979). Throughout ?What is Universal Pragmatics?? he maintains that all the complexities of sentence structures and their utterances are successfully communicated if an original intent is adhered to. Habermas maintains, that each form of communication, direct and otherwise, is to reach understanding. Such a pure communication is only possible if it is conducted?in a nutshell?clearly and honestly.?
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Chomsky's Theory of Universal Grammar, 2002.
This paper is a discussion of the ideas espoused by Chomsky that the capacity for language acquisition is something we are born with.
1,810 words (approx. 7.2 pages), 4 sources, $ 58.95
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Abstract
This paper provides a detailed evaluation of Chomsky?s theory of Universal Grammar and innate Language Acquisition Device, which is central to the field of linguistics and psycholinguistics. It reviews the controversies surrounding Chomsky?s theory and discusses alternative theories.
From the Paper
"Language acquisition is undeniably biologically programmed as children all over the world, from varying cultures and linguistic environments produce the same levels of language at the same stages. Chomsky proposes that this is a direct result of Universal Grammar, which is an inherent part of every human mind. However, his theory of an innate Language Acquisition Device provokes controversy on two grounds. First is the debate between nature and nurture, with many theorists criticising Chomsky for dismissing any environmental factors. Second, is the dispute as to whether language acquisition is an independent innate faculty as Chomsky claims, or part of the child?s wider cognitive development. Such disagreements demonstrate the enormous impact Chomsky?s theory has had on the field of linguistics and reflects how ?the Universal Grammar theory is for many the central pillar in our understanding of language.? (Cook, V. Inside Language. Arnold. 1997, p249)"
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A Look at the Big Bang Theory, 2002.
A study of the sources that support and question the Big Bang Theory of the beginning of the universe.
1,439 words (approx. 5.8 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 47.95
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Abstract
The writer gives a background of the Big Bang Theory and explores the theory as an explanation of the beginning of the universe. However, since the 1940s and the introduction of this theory, scientists have raised questions as to the validity of the explanation and continue to research other ways in which the universe might have been created. The paper traces some of this research.
From the Paper
"One such area of research has been the model for the expansion of the universe and so for the Big Bang. One theory offered to explain this is the inflationary model, and over the last two decades what has happened to this model shows some of the ways scientific truth is pursued and fine-tuned. Alan Guth developed the idea in 1979 and wrote it in his notebook. Inflation was the name for the mechanism Guth proposed for igniting cosmic expansion and which might have operated for as little as 10-35 seconds. Still, it would have whipped up all the matter and energy in the universe and laid the seeds for galaxies and galaxy clusters in that brief time, and in that time the universe would have blossomed exponentially from as small as 10-24 centimeters across to perhaps the size of a pumpkin. Michael Turner of the University of Chicago describes inflation as "the most important idea in cosmology since that of the big bang itself.""
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Universal Reason, Universal Mind, 2002.
A discussion of some of the parallels and differences in Kantian and Buddhist assumptions.
1,263 words (approx. 5.1 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 42.95
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Abstract
This paper examines how there is a marked similarity between Immanuel Kant?s ideas of the empty universe and universal reason and the Buddhist idea of the universal mind. It attempts to explore these parallels, while also being mindful of the difference that exists between Kantian and Buddhist thought. It analyzes how both Kant and Buddhism demonstrate that the universe is empty since it is not different from the not-self ? because it cannot differentiate, for in order to differentiate it must somehow have cognitive access to the object outside itself. It also demonstrates how the crucial difference between Kant and Buddhist thought is one of quality. Kant assumes that the universe is inherently empty and neutral and his attempt is to demonstrate it to be so. On the other hand, Buddhist internalizes this process and accepts the fact that the universe is empty but that it must be experienced by the individual mind ? by way of the empty, universal mind, the individual mind may also become empty, free of the distinction/perception between subject and object.
From the Paper
"Kant assumes that the universe or universal reason is innate by way of this distinction. In order to grasp that a representation is a representation of an object, a being must be able to comprehend several things. First, that being must recognize that there is an object that the representation is a representation of. Next, there has to be a recognition that the representation is different from the thing represented. Thus, the representation of an object is a bridge that connects a being?s consciousness with the things that surround it. Thus universal reason must be able to reason itself, to see itself, plus the representation, and the object. The representation is the means by which a being can have any awareness of objects as objects at all."
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The Big Bang Theory, 2004.
An overview of the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe.
2,736 words (approx. 10.9 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 81.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses how the Big Bang theory is considered by many to be the most plausible model concerning creation and how modern educational institutions, especially from elementary school to undergraduate university level, continue to teach the Big Bang without question or qualification. It provides an overview of the physics of the theory and also looks at other theories, such as the Steady State theory, which have departed form the original model.
From the Paper
"From the beginning of the recording of human consciousness, man has looked up to the skies of heaven and pondered the creation of the universe. The earliest recorded writings on the subject addressed the universe, and its nature, from the most basic origins. These writings included the questions of whether a ?higher power/omniscient being? was responsible for its creation, if the universe was based on a singular ?event? that resulted in its evolution, to the most basic, and seemingly logical idea (to many ancient sources, anyway) that the universe was simply infinite, uncreated, and forever unchanging."
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Superstring Theory, 2005.
An analysis of the theories that led to the superstring theory on the nature of the universe.
900 words (approx. 3.6 pages), 2 sources, $ 35.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the various theories that were developed beginning at the end of the nineteenth century and leading over time to superstring theory as a way of explaining the fundamental nature of the universe, with necessary earlier ideas including relativity theory, quantum theory, and the idea of higher dimensions over the four usually cited.
From the Paper
"The development of superstring theory required a number of theoretical shifts from the earlier Newtonian model of the universe, which itself had supplanted other ideas about the nature of reality. In this development, the nature of the human relationship to the universe changed because of scientific theories of the time that were offered, that countered the prevailing beliefs, and that seeped down into the culture to be expressed in art, literature, and the popular press in various ways. The central figure in this shift was Albert Einstein, though he was not alone in making discoveries that would alter the prevailing Newtonian, Copernican, and common-sense view of time and space and the immutability of both."
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Universals, 2002.
A thorough discussion of the Platonic and Aristotelian theories of "universals" and the relevant implications that these views have.
1,568 words (approx. 6.3 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 51.95
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Abstract
This paper tackles the issue of "universals" from all sides, looking at both the Platonic and Aristotelian models to understand the theories that arose from those bases. The idea of a universal is thoroughly defined, explored in terms of different theories (Bundle Theory, Nominalism, Classic Platonism, etc.), and finally boiled down to a discussion of the implication that the idea of "universals" has in regards to the more general notions of "nothingness" and "somethingness".
From the Paper
"The following essay is focussed on exploring all aspects of the theory of universals as it applies to metaphysical investigation. I will proceed in defining universal in general terms, presenting the arguments that support universal theory, presenting the opposing arguments, briefly defining the individual nominilist theories, and finally presenting my own thoughts concerning universals. I have tried to present the following material logically and comprehensibly, to eliminate as many assumptions as possible, hopefully providing a coherent step by step exploration of universals and related issues."
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Chaos Theory, 2005.
This paper discusses chaos theory based on James Gleick's "Chaos: Making a New Science" and Ian Stewart's "Does God Play Dice?: The Mathematics of Chaos".
1,500 words (approx. 6.0 pages), 2 sources, MLA, $ 49.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that James Gleick believes that chaos theory is revolution in thinking, a major shift from the ordered universe of Newton and even the less mechanical universe of Einstein. The author points out that chaos theory says that the universe is decided on the basis of chance to a great degree and that the aggregate of those chances cannot be predicted or even discerned to allow a clear cause-and-effect assessment. The paper relates that chaos theory says that a small change in a system, which takes place all the time and cannot be tracked or even relied upon, can produce more and more changes until something much greater and unforeseen occurs.
From the Paper
"Ian Stewart is trained as a mathematician, while Gleick writes about science for the New York Times. Stewart is British, and Gleick American. They write about the same subject from different points of view. Stewart begins his book noting that the direction for creation has been first from chaos into order, and that physics has now found that order is something of an illusion masking the continuing chaos of reality. He also cites Newton and the Newtonian era as affirming that nature has laws and man can discover what these laws are. The world described by Newton was a clockwork world which operated like a machine, and Stewart discusses the nature of that world and world-view much more directly than does Gleick."
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Dark Energy, 2003.
An overview of dark energy, the equation of state, and theories of universe expansion.
1,153 words (approx. 4.6 pages), 7 sources, MLA, $ 39.95
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Abstract
This paper describes dark energy, or anti-gravity, and debates theories of universe expansion, touching on Einstein's theory of relativity and cosmological constant. It also talks about the equation of state of the universe and its impact on universe expansion or contraction. It looks at how there are many theories about dark energy from the quintessence theory and the topological defect theory to the cosmological constant theory. It explains that, by analyzing the equation of state of this energy and evaluating current theories, scientists can construe a plausible theory for the fate of the universe.
From the Paper
"Physicists started negotiating and theorizing about the possibility of a dark energy around the turn of the century. One generally un-disproved theory from that time is that which relates the equation of state to the ?cosmological constant?. The cosmological constant (often called lambda) was proposed by Einstein in 1917 to make the universe unchanging in his equations (5). He was generally unsure of this idea, and rejected this theory shortly after it was determined that the universe is perpetually growing. However, his idea of a cosmological constant is currently applied to the universe in a slightly different way, setting the equation of state constant (5)(4). The current theories of dark energy date back to 1998 when supernovae were discovered to be dimmer than expected."
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Cosmology, 2002.
Examining different theories about the age of the universe and how it all started.
1,687 words (approx. 6.7 pages), 9 sources, MLA, $ 54.95
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Abstract
This paper explores some theories about the beginning of the universe and focuses on the Big Bang Theory. It explains that depending on whose research you follow, the universe could be anywhere from 9.5 billion to a few trillion years old. This paper introduces and discusses the Big Bang Theory, explaining how, according to the theory, the universe came in being. It then discusses the Redshift critique of the theory.
From the Paper
"In 1929, Edwin Hubble decided that because the light coming from most galaxies was redshifted, the universe must be expanding after exploding from an infinitesimal volume of superhot, superdense concentration of matter and energy. The explosion is called the big bang which propelled matter in all directions and at all speeds. According to the big bang theory, the farther away an object is from us, the more redshifted its light. Also, a greater redshift means the object is moving away faster than objects with less redshift. If the universe is not expanding, this cannot be true and the redshift must be due to other causes. An astronomer can tell how old the universe is by the rate of expansion. If the redshift is due to something other than expansion, nothing can be said about the universe's age. The old paradigm of a steady state universe suggests that the universe is a closed system, with matter and energy in a constant flux."
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Theory of Everything, 2003.
An overview of the theories that explain everything from the workings of the universe to the behavior of tiny vibrating strings.
1,155 words (approx. 4.6 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 39.95
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Abstract
This paper expounds the ?Theory of Everything,? starting with the pioneering theories of Newton?s ?Laws of Motion? and Einstein?s ?General Theory of Relativity,? developing right through to the cutting-edge ?string theory? research currently being conducted around the world today. It shows the importance of fields of study as seemingly diverse as calculus, differential geometry, electromagnetism, particle physics and quantum mechanics to the development of a ?Theory of Everything?.
From the Paper
"However, there is a fundamental discord between Einstein?s ?Theory of General Relativity? and quantum mechanics. Einstein saw the universe in four dimensions (the three dimensions of space plus time). The gravitational force that binds matter to the earth stems from this space-time continuum. Since quantum mechanic?s subatomic particles only exist theoretically, they cannot be located in space-time and their motion can only be hypothesized. Thus, we have two theories that work individually but not together. There are also many unanswered questions. Relativity cannot tell us how the big bang created the universe or what black holes consist of. Similarly, quantum theory is not able to make order or sense of the assortment of miniscule matter it describes."
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Astronomy and the Young Universe, 2002.
A discussion of the argument about the young universe and the mature universe.
3,480 words (approx. 13.9 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 98.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses what the universe is made up of, its age, how stars are formed and what is the future of our solar system. It discusses the history of the exploration of the universe. The author explains how In this century large telescopes are set up, far away from city lights and traffic to gather the best data for studying the skies. A brief overview of the theories on the origin of the universe is also given. The author concludes that although new theories are constantly being proposed and science is constantly to answer the question ?Where did we come from?? , until now, no answer has satisfied everyone.
From the Paper
"Man's fascination with the heavens is as old as recorded history itself. Astronomers from all civilizations?medieval to the present times?carefully observed the stars and their relative position in the night sky. Even in the medieval times, astronomers universally observed two features: that stars tended to drift westward with each passing night; and, despite this apparent movement, stars were always in a fixed position relative to each other. Anything that man could not explain, ending up fascinating him?as did the stars. It has been stated that when man loses his desire to explore the unknown, the human race will have sounded its own death knell."
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Theory of a Language Instinct, 2002.
Explains Steven Pinker's theory of a language instinct, partially derived from Noam Chomsky's work with generative/universal grammar.
900 words (approx. 3.6 pages), 3 sources, $ 35.95
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Abstract
The paper discusses Pinker's ideas expressed in his book "The Language Instinct", and explains the position of those who oppose his theory of language instinct and advocate a more or less behaviorist position in which nothing is "innate" in the mind.
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Cosmology and The Big Bang Theory, 1995.
Looks at the evolution of theories concerning the origins and nature of the universe.
1,125 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 7 sources, $ 39.95
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From the Paper
"Cosmology and the Big Bang Theory
Overview
Since the beginning of human history, there have been questions about where the "stuff" that composes our universe comes from. In cosmology, the study of the origin and evolution of the universe, theories are put forward to explain the known facts and assumptions about the stars and everything we know and sense.
There are "steady state" theories that propose that everything in the universe is pretty much the way it always has been. The steady state theory posits that the universe is contained within a "closed" system, and so the assumption could be made that the universe extends for a vast though finite distance in all directions. However, in 1823 a German cosmologist named Wilhelm Olbers asked the question, "Why is the sky dark at night?" Olbers ..."
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