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Public Debt vs. Federal Debt, 2002.
A comparison of what public debt is vs. what federal debt is, and how it affects the economy.
2,100 words (approx. 8.4 pages), 15 sources, MLA, $ 65.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses how the government is just as effected at the economic crisis at the public and how both sections of the economy have been thrown into debt. The paper examines the differences between these two types of debts and discusses ways that the government can change policies and introduce reforms in order to end this cycle.
From the Paper
"The gross Federal debt is divided into two categories: debt held by the public, and debt the government owes itself. The first category, public debt, is the total of all federal deficits, minus surpluses, over the years. This is the money that the Federal Government has borrowed from the public, such as notes and bonds of varying sizes and time periods. This debt is held by individuals, corporations, state or local governments, foreign governments, and other entities outside of the US government. This does not include Federal Financing Bank securities. (A side note here: the Federal Financing Bank was established to ?consolidate and reduce the governments cost of financing a variety of federal agencies and other borrowers whose obligations are guaranteed by the Federal Government?.) (Public Debt Online) "
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Public Debt and Tax Cut, 2005.
A look at President Bush's tax-cut plan and its effects on the American public and economy.
2,027 words (approx. 8.1 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 64.95
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Abstract
This paper begins by explaining the difference between a public debt and a federal debt and then takes a look at President Bush's tax-cut policy, the theory behind why it is supposed to help the economy, its effects, and its implications for American citizens and the American economy.
From the Paper
"A debt that has been accumulated by the Federal Government in either its Treasury or in its Financing Bank is referred to as a ?Public Debt?. The debt could have been incurred by either the selling of ?securities? and bonds to the public, or through the borrowing of funds from a Federal account. A public debt can also be defined as the total amount that the Federal Government has accrued due to all its borrowings in the past. (Definition of Public Debt) Federal Debt, on the other hand, can be defined as the total amount of debt that is owed by the Federal Government that is as yet unpaid. A federal debt can consist of both public debt and agency debt. A federal debt is made up of the funds owed to the Treasury, in the form of Treasury Bills, Treasury Notes, and also Treasury Bonds."
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Taxes and the Federal Debt, 2002.
A paper which explores how cutting taxes might ultimately help the growing federal debt.
1,449 words (approx. 5.8 pages), 6 sources, APA, $ 48.95
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Abstract
The paper explores how cutting taxes may ultimately be an important strategy in reducing the federal debt of the United States. The federal debt has been a long standing concern of American citizens, politicians and economists. Today, the federal government faces a projected gross federal debt of $6,118,364 million in 2005. The paper shows how governments have traditionally taken the stance of increasing taxes or cutting spending in order to reduce the deficit. These attempts have largely failed due to unanticipated budget concerns. It explores how, in traditional attempts to reduce the debt, cutting taxes was thought to be a way to decrease national revenues, thus potentially increasing the debt. However, many economists are now considering that cutting taxes may help to stimulate the economy, paradoxically resulting in increased taxation revenue through higher employment and better wages. The paper examines how tax cuts may prove to be a way to increase revenues, thus potentially providing a means to reduce the federal debt. It also examines President Bush's Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 (EGTRRA, designed to cut taxes, reduce the debt, and stimulate the national economy.
From the Paper
"Critics however, argue that EGTRRA will ultimately fail. They note that misrepresentations in federal budgeting overestimate budget surpluses, including mistakes in long term costs of retirement programs from a budgeted $5.6 trillion to a mere 1.6 trillion. Further, they note that EGTRRA will reduce revenues through tax cuts. Ultimately, the critics argue that the combination of a decreased budget surplus and tax cuts will sink the EGTRRA (Gale and Potter).
If the critics are correct, and the EGTRRA fails, the government will be forced to increase taxes, reduce spending, or increase the public debt. As such, plans to reduce taxes may once again result in increased federal debt."
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Federal Deficit & Debt, 1996.
Definitions, measurement, history of deficit, politics, theories on causes & effects, inflation, taxation & spending, corporate welfare.
2,250 words (approx. 9.0 pages), 9 sources, $ 79.95
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From the Paper
"Recent years have brought about an interest in the level of the federal deficit and debt level. The federal government went through a partial shutdown during 1995 as Congress and the president wrangled over a balanced budget strategy, and the issue is certain to gain attention during the 1996 presidential election season. However, there is much debate over how the deficit is even measured, let alone how to reduce it. Indeed, economists do not even agree that deficit reduction is necessary for economic prosperity, and there are a number of economists who suggest that deficit spending is not a negative factor in the economy. This research explores the issue of government deficit spending and debt levels from a macroeconomic perspective, including what measures might be taken to reduce the deficit."
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Federal Deficit and National Debt, 1992.
An examination of the various aspects of the causes of, possible solutions for and potential impacts of the national debt and federal budget deficit.
2,025 words (approx. 8.1 pages), 12 sources, $ 71.95
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From the Paper
"Budget Deficits and the National Debt: Consequences for the Economy
Introduction
The candidacy of H. Ross Perot succeeded in placing the issues of budget deficits and the accumulating national debt on the political agenda. The debate over the nature of the deficit, its magnitude, and its consequences for the national economy have been raging in the economic community for quite some time but the issue now appears to have entered the more general public dialogue. The analysis which follows attempts to define the different economic perspectives on the national debt and deficits. It evaluates the differing perceptions of the consequences of the debt and deficits for the U.S. economy and concludes with a..."
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The Federal Reserve System, 2004.
A description of the function and the history of the Federal Reserve System, the Federal Reserve Board of Governors, and the Federal Reserve banks.
1,910 words (approx. 7.6 pages), 9 sources, MLA, $ 60.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the Federal Reserve System, which originated by Congressional passage of the Federal Reserve Act in 1913. It shows how it is also known as ?the Fed? and how it includes a Board of Governors and twelve Federal Reserve banks in major cities across the U.S., which effectively divides the U.S. into regions. It looks at how it plays a multi-faceted, predominant role in the monetary policy affecting our economy.
Outline
Abstract
Introduction
Historical Background
Federal Reserve Act of 1913
The Banking Act of 1933
The 1950s and Beyond
Purpose
Funding
Board of Governors
Federal Reserve Banks
Conclusion
From the Paper
"The ?Fed? supported the Treasury?s fiscal policy goals from its founding to the years following World War II primarily. In the 1970s, the inflation rate went ballistic as producer and consumer prices rose, oil prices soared and the Federal deficit more than doubled (U.S. Banking). The Monetary Control Act of 1980, required the Fed to price its financial services competitively against private sector providers and to establish reserve requirements for all eligible financial institutions (U.S. Banking). The Act marked the beginning of yet another period of banking reforms. Following its passage, interstate banking grew, and banks began offering interest-paying accounts and instruments to attract customers from brokerage firms. Momentum for change increased, and by 1999, the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act was passed."
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Federal Reserve Open Market, 2001.
This paper looks at the events at the Federal Reserve Open Market committee meeting in October 2000.
1,000 words (approx. 4.0 pages), 2 sources, $ 35.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the reasons why the Federal Reserve Open Market Committee at its October 2000 meeting decided to leave the Federal Funds Rate target (and by extension the money supply target) unchanged as well as looking at what might have prompted the Fed Open Market Committee to increase the Federal Funds Rate or Discount Rate as well as what might have prompted them to decrease the Federal Funds Rate or Discount Rate ? and what other actions might have accompanied either an increase or decrease.
From the paper:
"To understand the Fed?s decision in October it is necessary to understand how the office functions in general. As the central banking authority of the United States, the Federal Reserve acts as a fiscal agent for the U.S. government; it also serves as custodian of the reserve accounts of commercial banks, makes loans to commercial banks, and is authorized to issue Federal Reserve notes that constitute the entire supply of paper currency of the country. The system comprises the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, the 12 Federal Reserve banks, the Federal Open Market Committee, the Federal Advisory Council, and, a Consumer Advisory Council along with several thousand member banks. The Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System determines the reserve requirements of the member banks within statutory limits, reviews and determines the discount rates established by the 12 Federal Reserve banks, and reviews the budgets of the reserve banks."
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The Federal Reserve Board, 2005.
This paper discusses the Federal Reserve Board, a primary part of the Federal Reserve System of the United States and its effect on the economy of the United States.
1,465 words (approx. 5.9 pages), 5 sources, APA, $ 48.95
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Abstract
The paper explains that, in 1913, the Federal Reserve System, an integral part of the United States economy, was created by the Federal Reserve Act to deter the periods of financial panics, which were occurring in the United States. The author points out that managing the nation's monetary policy is the most important responsibility of the Board of Governors. The Board has three tools to conduct monetary policy: open market operations, reserve requirements, and the discount rate. The paper relates that the increase in the federal funds rate is the Federal Reserve's way of controlling inflation because, by raising the cost of borrowing money when there is too much money in circulation, the Federal Reserve's intention is to slow the economy down.
Table of Contents
Introduction
History
The Federal Reserve Board
Responsibilities of the Federal Reserve Board
The Fed and the United States Economy Today
Conclusion
From the Paper
"The Federal Reserve Board was established as a federal government agency and is the governing element of the Federal Reserve System. The Federal Reserve Board, or the "Board of Governors," is made up of seven members who are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Once confirmed by the Senate, the length of a term for a Board member is four-teen years. No Board member may be reappointed to the board. Every four years a new Chairman and Vice Chairman are also appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate."
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A Comparison of Two Federal Reserve Banks, 1997.
Examines the role of the Federal Reserve System. Compares & contrasts the roles of the New York Federal Reserve Bank with the St. Louis Federal Reserve Bank.
2,025 words (approx. 8.1 pages), 8 sources, $ 71.95
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From the Paper
"A Comparison of Two Federal Reserve Banks
Introduction: Federal Reserve Functions
The Federal Reserve System is the central bank of the United States. It was founded by Congress in 1913 to provide the nation with a safer, more flexible, and more stable monetary and financial system. Over the years, its role in banking and the economy has expanded. Today, the federal Reserve's duties fall into fall into four general areas:
1. Conducting the nation's monetary policy by influencing the money and credit conditions in the economy in pursuit of full employment and stable prices;
2. Supervising and regulating banking institutions to ensure the safety and soundness of the nation's banking and financial.."
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The History of the Federal Reserve System, 2008.
An examination of how the history of the Federal Reserve System has paralleled the history of economics in the United States.
3,406 words (approx. 13.6 pages), 8 sources, MLA, $ 96.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the nature of the Federal Reserve System, the push towards centralized banking in the United States, the panic of 1907, the evolution of the Federal Reserve during the 20th century, and the future of the institution.The paper highlights the significant role that the Federal Reserve System has played in the history of the United States since its creation. The paper explains that the Federal Reserve System was the final and most successful attempt by the United States government to create a centralized banking system for the nation that could help stabilize the economy and centrally coordinate financial policy-making. The paper then points out that, though significant criticism has been leveled at the Federal Reserve, throughout its history, there are few indications that the Federal Reserve will be abolished in the near future. In conclusion, the paper shows that for the foreseeable future, the Federal Reserve System will be an undeniable feature of American political and economic life.
Outline:
Introduction
What Is the Federal Reserve System?
Early History of Banking the United States, 1791-1913
The Panic of 1907 and the Birth of the Federal Reserve
From 1913 to the Present: The Evolution of the Fed
Criticism and the Future of the Fed
Conclusion
From the Paper
"The Federal Reserve System was first established in the wake of the Panic of 1907. Earlier attempts to create such a system of federal banks had failed, but the Panic provided the impetus by apparently highlighting the need for a system like the Federal Reserve System. The Federal Reserve Act (1913) called for a system of eight to twelve mostly autonomous regional reserve banks. These banks would be owned by commercial banking interests, but coordinated by a committee appointed by the President of the United States (Flaherty sec. 13). In this way, the Federal Reserve System was originally devised as a private banking system that could operate largely in the public interest."
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Federal Construction Contracting Laws, 2003.
A complete overview of the federal construction contracting laws in play in the United States.
3,737 words (approx. 14.9 pages), 15 sources, APA, $ 103.95
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Abstract
Federal contracts for construction, while similar in many respects to other types of federal contracts, have some unique aspects that have caused the federal government to create a system of rules within the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) specific to construction contracts. The federal government has been justified in creating these rules separate from those that apply specifically to supply and service contracts. This paper focuses on some of the unique rules and regulations that apply to federal construction contracts, including those related to contract types, labor laws, specifications, payments, delays, and differing site conditions.
Abstract
Overview
Contract Types
Federal Construction Contracting Laws
Contract Performance and Specifications
Payment Financing
Delays
Differing Site Conditions
References
From the Paper
"The federal government is the largest owner of real property in the world (Bastianelli, et. al., 1998), so it stands to reason that they spend an enormous amount of money on construction and maintenance of that property. It is difficult to gauge exactly how much the federal government spends on construction annually, but it is noteworthy that the Department of Defense alone planned to award over $10 billion on construction contracts in 2002 (Bush, 2001). Because of this significant amount of construction outsourcing, and the intricacies that go along with construction contracting, the federal government has been justified in developing unique regulations and rules for construction contracts. The federal government, in the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR), defines construction as, ??construction, alteration, or repair (including dredging, excavating, and painting) of buildings, structures, or other real property?? (FAR 2.101). Determining whether or not something is considered a building or a structure is general straightforward, although there are always exceptions. However, the line defining whether or not something is real property can, at times, be somewhat unclear. The FAR does not provide a definition for real property, but in federal contracts the common legal definition is used, that real property is, ??land and all things that are attached to it?? (Lectric Law Library, 2003). Though many of the clauses, terms and conditions, and rules applicable to federal construction contracts are the same, or similar, to those that are used on federal contracts for supplies, there are a number of differences in the nature of contracting for construction that have caused the federal government to create separate laws that deal specifically with federal construction contracts. One of the major differences is that construction contracts are performed on Government property. Because of this, construction contractors are subject to a great deal more in the area of inspections and general surveillance on their contracts (Abernathy and Kelleher, 1976). Construction contracts typically have much more paperwork than federal supply contracts. On construction contracts, a contractor is required to file daily reports showing that they complied with all the unique construction regulations, including safety, schedules, and submittals of material samples (Arnavas, 2001, ?? 27.4.a.). Construction contracts are subject to much greater scrutiny on performance than supply contracts, as detailed analysis and explanation of any deficiencies are reported to contractors and contractors have the right to respond. Past performance information is also kept on construction contracts for six years, where the norm on supply contracts is three years (Arnavas, 2001, ?? 27.4.a). Other differences that will be the focus of this paper include contract types, labor laws, specifications, payments, delays, and differing site conditions."
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The Federal Reserve, 2005.
This paper discusses the history of the origins of the Federal Reserve, commonly known as the Fed.
2,300 words (approx. 9.2 pages), 2 sources, MLA, $ 70.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that the Federal Reserve Bank (the Fed) was established in 1913 in response to serious economic instability in the United States because, at that time, bankers had few guidelines to asset reserves and loan policies; therefore, some communities were virtually controlled by private trusts. The author points out that the Federal Reserve Act, which divided the nation into twelve districts with twelve Federal Reserve banks, standardized banking in the U.S. (1) by requiring every bank in the country to deposit part of its money at its regional Federal Reserve Bank in order to guarantee liquidity, (2) which the Fed invests to earn interest; furthermore; (3) these regional Federal Reserve Banks are not governmental organizations but rather privately owned financial institutions owned by member banks with (4) a seven member Federal Reserve Board, appointed by the President, to oversee the system and to establish policy. The paper stresses that the greatest power given to the new Federal Reserve System was the power to slow or stimulate the economy by raising or lowering the new discounted interest rate.
From the Paper
"Despite the fact that the Panic of 1907 and the country's long history of bank panics and bank instability had shifted public opinion toward national economic reform, the American monetary system went unchanged for another five years. In the meantime, the lack of currency in circulation was creating a credit crunch in the United States. Then in 1912, congress passed the Aldrich-Vreeland Act to provide short-term aid by allowing national banks to issue notes on a wider range of securities, thus putting more money into circulation. As a more long-term solution, congress created a National Monetary commission to find ways in which to stabilize the American monetary system."
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The Federal Reserve, 2002.
This paper discusses the Federal Reserve, the central bank of the United States, which is charged with steering the monetary policies of the country.
1,000 words (approx. 4.0 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 35.95
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Abstract
This paper describes the history and function of the Federal Reserve, one of the two most important central banks in the world, along with the Bank of Japan. The paper explains the real policy-making body for the Federal Reserve is the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), which fixes the federal-funds rate, or the rate at which banks lend to one another, and decides monetary growth targets. The author states that the Federal Reserve is an independent entity, though there are those who doubt that it is as politically insulated as it is supposed to be.
From the Paper
"The Federal Reserve System was formed by an act of Congress in 1913 and was to function as a central bank for the government and the people of the United States. In these functions, the Federal Reserve remains one of the most powerful institutions in American society, influencing the growth of the money supply, affecting interest rates, and playing a large roll in the pace and direction of spending by every citizen and every business. In addition to the 12 district banks, there are some 5,500 private member banks in the Federal Reserve System. Member banks elect six of the nine directors of their district bank, and they in turn recommend some of the people who sit on the two committees in Washington to make or advise on policy for the entire system."
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The Federal Reserve and the Depression, 2008.
This paper considers the degree to which the Federal Reserve can be blamed for causing the Great Depression.
4,172 words (approx. 16.7 pages), 20 sources, MLA, $ 111.95
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Abstract
The paper discusses the four key events that the Federal Reserve had to confront during the Great Depression: the Stock Market collapse, the failure of the banks, Britain's abandonment of the gold standard and the Federal Reserve's large scale open-market purchases. The paper looks at Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz's account "The Great Contraction," that contends that the Federal Reserve failed to expand the money stock in the face of the Depression and in doing so aggravated the situation. The paper also discusses how some of the failure of the Federal Reserve can be blamed on the radical changes in the American economy and its government brought about by the Depression. Finally, the paper looks at a defense of the Federal Reserve's actions.
From the Paper
"During the period 1929 through 1932, the Federal Reserve confronted a series of economic crisis, and an assessment of its actions during this period turns on the interpretation given to its responses to these crises. In the fall of 1929, the Stock Market plummeted. In the fall of 1930, banks throughout the nation failed, climaxing in the collapse of the Bank of the United States. In the fall of 1931, Britain abandoned the gold standard. In April 1932, the Federal Reserve undertook large scale open-market purchases."
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Federal Budget Process, 2004.
An in-depth analysis of the federal budget process.
4,946 words (approx. 19.8 pages), 8 sources, MLA, $ 125.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the functioning of the federal budget process and explores the barriers involved. The paper explains that federal budgeting can also be split up into its basic standards of activity and measurement. The expenditure process involves three different stages of budget authorization, obligation, and outlays. The paper discusses the various parties involved in decision-making regarding the federal budget from Congress to the president. The laws pertinent to the federal budget process are presented in the paper. The paper contends that the federal budgetary procedure is required to endorse specific and apparent information on budgetary alternatives, to provide the lawmakers with a structure for arriving at agreeable conclusions on expenditure and receipt strategies, and to facilitate those policies to be implemented.
From the Paper
"As is with any complicated strategy, the federal budgeting can also be split up into its basic standards of activity and measurement. The expenditure process involves three different stages of budget authorization, obligation and outlays. The Budget authority is bestowed by the Congress and President within the legal framework. It generates the legal base for federal units to make the financial responsibilities enforceable in terms of the obligations. The activities of the federal agencies in form of executing contracts, appointment of personnel and executing orders for goods and services give rise to generation of such obligations. The outlays follow when the obligations are settled down. The outlays are normally in shape of the checks, electronic fund transfers and other payments effected to by the Treasury Branch. The budget authorities mostly are provided to the agencies every year being excerpted from the legislations made during the previous Congresses. The funds are provided without the legislation by the Congress. (Keith, 1996)"
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