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Gender and Criminal Theory, 2007.
This paper explores gender-based theories of criminal behavior.
1,190 words (approx. 4.8 pages), 3 sources, APA, $ 40.95
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Abstract
The paper discusses the origins, strengths and weaknesses of gender-based theories of criminal behavior and whether they are consensus-based or conflict-based. The paper discusses how gender-based theories of crime are often neglected in investigation into crime theory. The paper explains that such dismissals are erroneous, not only because they ignore the role women play in crime but because they dismiss discussion over why males are so proportionally involved in crime.
Outline:
Introduction
The Birth of Gender-Based Crime Theories
Contemporary Gender-Based Crime Theories
Strengths and Weaknesses of Gender-Based Theories of Criminal Behaviour
Gender-based Theories of Crime as Conflict or Consensus-Based Approaches
Conclusion
From the Paper
"The lack of theoretical investigation into gender-based schemas of crime has been noted by contemporary criminologists. This is strange, given that gender is clearly a notable factor in criminal and delinquent behaviour: only 7 percent of prison inmates and 11 percent of jail inmates are female, and women comprise only 14% of sworn officers in large police departments (Flavin, 2003, p. 225). So why is gender and its relationship to crime so often overlooked in academic circles? Past inattention to the issue has been somewhat redressed in recent times based on a growing number of gender-based theories of criminal behaviour. The sum of these theories generally relate to the "invisibility" of women in a patriarchal society defined by paternalism, sexism and traditional notions of chivalry. Gender theories of criminal behaviour generally revolve around two schools of thought: that of criticizing traditional male approaches to crime study and of developing "gender-sensitive interpretations of deviance and a consideration of the nature of female criminality" (Williams & McShane, 2004, p. 254)."
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Criminal Theory, 2006.
The paper explains the classical understanding of criminal theory, citing Cesare Baccaria, one of the founders of "classical theory". A case study of Martha Stewart is detailed and explained.
1,400 words (approx. 5.6 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 46.95
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Abstract
The writer explains that according to Baccaria's theory, the purpose of government is to preserve maximum freedom while maintaining order. Under this theory of crime and punishment, the purpose of governmental intervention is to prevent the encroachment of individuals against each other's rights. The paper explains that the crime should fit the punishment. The writer brings the example of Martha Stewart who was accused of insider trading and securities fraud. The writer explains that it is difficult to prove what harm Stewart's crime did and therefore difficult to choose a fitting punishment. In conclusion, according to Baccaria's classical theory, Martha Stewart's punishments appear excessive for the system that they are engaged in.
From the Paper
"A good case examination of the classical theory in action can be found in our own country. America and its constitution were established with a heavy emphasis on the social contract. Therefore, our legal system is rooted in Baccaria's understanding of crime and punishment. One recent criminal case that gripped the minds of Americans was the "white collar crime" committed by Martha Stewart. This billionaire TV host and corporate giant engaged in what the SEC regulation committee called "insider trading", or trading her stocks based on information not available to the public. Her case is unique because it not only involves an extremely high profile defendant but the confusion of why and how she is guilty is an issue that is still to be resolved. The actual conviction that Martha Stewart could be going to prison for is not in fact insider trading at all, but "Securities fraud" a concept even more vague than insider trading. To understand her crime through the lens of the classical theory we must develop an understand for how her crime directly harms the people and why her punishment fits her crime."
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Racist Crime in Light of Criminal Theory, 2005.
A survey of criminal theories in an attempt to explain the racist crime motivation.
1,000 words (approx. 4.0 pages), 6 sources, APA, $ 35.95
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Abstract
This study seeks the origin and causes of a racial homicide in Jasper, Texas. Three schools of crime theories help explain various dimensions of the crime. The classical school advances the social contract theory and the theory of proportionality. The Marxist school presents the labeling and conflict theories. Finally, the paper shows how Vernon Geberth and Erich Fromm advance the psychology of evil or malignant narcissism to explain the origin and cause of James Byrd's lynching.
From the Paper
"The proponents of the proportionality theory claim that the punishment should fit the crime. For example, if the punishment for stealing a doughnut were the same for stealing a car, many would see no added risk in stealing the car. Therefore, crime would increase if the punishment did not fit the crime. For several generations in Jasper, law enforcement looked the other way and/or participated in racist crimes. The risk for committing these crimes was next to nonexistent. Therefore, these unchallenged crimes increased in our tragic history of racism, over the decades. (Hoffman, 1999) This theory helps explain the racist crime trends from the 1920s to the 1960s. Jasper in 1998 was seen as a vestige of that era. Another paradigm may help explain the events at Jasper."
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Criminal Theory, 2004.
This paper answers two questions about Merton's theory of anomie and its theories of crime.
1,808 words (approx. 7.2 pages), 3 sources, APA, $ 63.95
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Abstract
The paper discusses Merton's theory of anomie and its relationship to criminal practice.
From the Paper
"The purpose of this report is to offer a critique of a criminology theory, specifically anomie and strain theory characterized by Akers and Sellers as reflective of the belief that some forms of social disorganization so impact upon individuals that social cohesion solidarity and integration are insufficient to eliminate crime and deviance. Anomie, also known as strain theory, proposes that social order, stability and integration are conducive to conformity, while disorder and the opposite of integration are conducive to crime and deviance."
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Criminal Justice Theory, 2004.
Discusses Sutherland's Social Process theories and Hirsch's Social Control theory.
900 words (approx. 3.6 pages), 1 source, MLA, $ 31.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses Sutherland's Social Process theories and Hirsch's Social Control theory. It explains why people commit crime according to these theories, discusses the notions behind these theories, discusses their policy implications, and notes how the theories have been modified over the years.
From the Paper
"Sutherland's Differential Association Theory suggests that people commit crime by learning in a social context through their interactions with others and communication with them. He believed criminal behavior is learned by interaction with others and this includes learning the techniques of committing the crime and the motives, drives, rationalizations and attitudes for committing it. This is due to their definition of legal codes as being favorable or unfavorable and so if someone believes the legal codes are unfavorable they will be more likely to commit a crime..."
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Beccaria?s Criminal Justice Theories, 2001.
This paper examines the role Beccaria played in shaping criminal justice.
3,055 words (approx. 12.2 pages), 8 sources, $ 89.95
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Abstract
This paper studies the life of Beccaria and his theories on criminal behavior and justice. It analyzes his work, "Essay On Crimes and Punishments," and it's influence in criminal justice systems throughout the world. The paper looks at how Beccaria viewed the criminal and the crime and its overall effect (damage) to society.
From the paper:
"This paper examines the contributions of Beccaria in the context of his own time, the lasting effect that they have had on the jurisprudential and penological systems of the modern Western world. After a general introduction to Beccaria?s ideas and his model of crime, this paper looks at the results of three contemporary studies that incorporate the ideas and models of Beccaria. This examination of current research will allow us to evaluate the ways in which Beccaria?s idea, born in such a different historical context, may still guide us in attempting to guide us in creating ever more just, more fair and more effective means of punishing criminals and allowing all of society (including criminals, victims, and the rest of us) to prosper."
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Beccaria?s Life and Times ? and Theoretical Underpinnings
3. Beccaria?s Classical Theory of Crime
4. Three Modern Studies
5. Conclusion
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Gender Blindness in the Criminal Justice System, 2002.
This paper looks closely at the topic of the justice system and its bias with regards to gender.
2,282 words (approx. 9.1 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 70.95
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Abstract
The writer discusses whether or not the Criminal Justice System is gender blind, whether males or females are favoured by any inherent gender bias, and what an appropriate level of gender bias is for the justice system. The paper cites particular cases and sources that illustrate both sides of the argument.
From the Paper
"The blindfold worn by the Lady Justice signifies the impartiality aspired to by the criminal justice system. Ideally, the courts should treat each person before it equally, in a manner blind to any distinguishing features. In reality, our criminal justice system takes into account many distinguishing features of defendants placed within its boundaries. A defendant's age determines whether they will be tried as an adult or juvenile, a determination that brings with it many differences in sentencing options. A defendant's socio-economic status can be seen as determining the quality of legal counsel available, and can also influence sentencing in cases where resources provide better treatment options. While many would like to argue that a person's race does not impact the criminal justice process, studies have confirmed otherwise, finding that the race of the offender and of the victim does play a role in sentencing (Kleck, 1981; Glaeser et al., 2000). Thus, when it is asked whether or not justice is 'gender-blind,' it is not surprising to find out that it is not. Research has consistently found a sex effect operating within the justice system (Daly, 1995). Theorists have offered different explanations for this sex effect, often citing the patriarchal paternalism prevalent in all aspects of modern Western societies (Bernat, 2001; Gilbert, 2001; Daly, 1999). Beyond determining what the sex effects are, and why they may exist, the important question is whether or not justice should be gender blind. The possibility exists that gender disparities in sentencing are simply reflective of actual gender differences within society and therefore, warranted. This paper will provide an overview of the support showing that justice is not gender-blind, the competing explanations for gender biases, and the debate over whether gender bias is warranted as a method of reflecting the actual differences between the genders."
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Conflict Theory in Criminal Justice, 2002.
Conflict theory based on Marxist assumptions and how this can be applied in criminal justice studies.
3,479 words (approx. 13.9 pages), 9 sources, MLA, $ 98.95
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Abstract
Conflict theory in criminal justice is based on the assumption that society is grounded in inherent conflict that cannot be resolved. This paper discusses how conflict theorists argue that those who hold power and wealth in a capitalist economy force the less-powerful to abide by their established rules with the purpose of protecting their own property and physical safety. It explains that the theory relies on a Marxist interpretation of the function of a capitalist society. It also shows how the theory argues for a broader definition of crime to include offenses and actions intended to maintain the ruling structure. This paper addresses how the theory and models of punishment based on the theory require an understanding of criminal justice that takes into consideration the social and political causes of crime, particularly models of treatment based on a concept of restorative justice.
Table of Contents
History and Definition of Conflict Theory
Human Nature
Social Order
Causal Logic of Conflict Theory
Conflict Theory and Criminal Justice Policy
Conflict Theory and Criminal Justice Practice
Evaluation
Bibliography
From the Paper
"Before the 1960s, most criminology research and theory was conducted under the rubric of structural-functionalism, which assumed the primacy of the social system and the inter-relationship of social institutions without much focus or consideration for the individuals or groups who made up the institutions. However, critics of these theories argued that by minimizing the social conflict and tension inherent within society, these theories supported a politically conservative agenda within sociology and criminology."
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Conflict Theory in Criminal Justice, 2000.
A defines and examination of conflict theory and view that crime is the inevitable result of social conflict. Includes human nature, social order, logic of theory, legal policy and practice.
2,925 words (approx. 11.7 pages), 9 sources, $ 103.95
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Abstract
Conflict theory in criminal justice is based on the assumption that society is grounded in inherent conflict that cannot be resolved. Conflict theorists argue that those who hold power and wealth in a capitalist economy force the less-powerful to abide by their established rules with the purpose of protecting their own property and physical safety.
From the Paper
"Conflict Theory in Criminal Justice
Abstract
Conflict theory in criminal justice is based on the assumption that society is grounded in inherent conflict that cannot be resolved. Conflict theorists argue that those who hold power and wealth in a capitalist economy force the less-powerful to abide by their established rules with the purpose of protecting their own property and physical safety. The theory relies on a Marxist interpretation of the function of a capitalist society. It argues for a broader definition of crime to include offenses and actions intended to maintain the ruling structure. The theory and models of punishment based on the theory would require an understanding of criminal justice that took into consideration the social and..."
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Theories on Criminal Behavior, 2007.
A case study on criminal behavior that applies R.L. Aker's social learning theory and the general strain theory on criminal behavior.
2,079 words (approx. 8.3 pages), 2 sources, MLA, $ 65.95
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Abstract
This paper presents a case study of a sixteen-year old girl who, along with two friends, has been charged with assault and fraud. The paper discusses Aker's social learning theory which operates on seven basic principles to explain criminal behavior and explores these principles. The paper then analyzes the general strain theory (GST) on criminal behavior. Finally, the paper integrates the theories and discusses how they apply to the case study.
Table of Contents:
Introduction: Joyce's Story
Theory Evaluation # 1 - Aker's Social Learning Theory
Theory Evaluation #2 - General Strain Theory
Theory Integration
Conclusion: Policy/Practice Implications
From the Paper
"The theories work somewhat in addressing weaknesses in their complement. Aker's theory that criminal behavior is learned is refuted by research demonstrating that delinquent behavior proceeds criminal social attachments. GST would state this is because the cause of criminal behavior is emotional and is therefore the result of the individual, not the individual's peers (though this emotion is spurred by outside forces). GST's emphasis on emotive responses also explains why some crimes are not committed for material benefit - a factor Aker credits as instrumental in the crime process. GST's failure to acknowledge the higher proportion of male crimes (as compared to crimes committed by females) may be accounted for in Aker's theory of social learning and material benefit, but not enough research has been done on the topic to confirm this. Also, the simplicity implicit in GST and its inability to adequately distinguish between types of strain may be explained using Aker's Social Learning Theory. Perhaps some strains are linked to delinquency when there is an obvious benefit, and types strain not linked with crime may produce not obvious advantage for the individual."
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Synthesized Theories as they Relate to Criminality, 2002.
This paper discusses new theories and understanding of why people commit crimes.
1,220 words (approx. 4.9 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 41.95
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Abstract
This paper investigates a few theories which together make up a new theory explaining criminality. This synthesized theory makes statements such as that behaviors and personalities are inherited and that a person should just accept it. The author illustrates how the importance lies in the combination of all the theories taught previously.
From the Paper
"The second part of the nature vs. nurture theory suggests that behaviors and personality traits are nurtured, or encouraged through a series of events?whether good or bad. The second element of the ?synthesized theory? says that when those two theories are combined with a new theory, such as studying generations of criminals, we have an entirely different approach to dealing with crime. This new ?synthesized theory? can be named ?generational studies? for the purpose of discussion."
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Criminal Justice Trait Theory, 2002.
A study of trait theories as applied to the criminal justice system.
2,100 words (approx. 8.4 pages), 14 sources, MLA, $ 65.95
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Abstract
This paper considers two different models of trait theories ? biosocial and biosocial/psychological ? within the context of the field of criminal justice. It describes the attempt to isolate what it is that defines human nature and human personality, in terms of what is the effect of environment and what is purely genetic in a personality. The author shows how these psychological concepts are applied to criminal rehabilitation therapy.
From the Paper
"One of the ways in which researchers have tried to answer this question is that they have attempted to isolate what it is that defines human nature and human personality. In other words, they have sought to isolate the different traits that together make up the personality. Although this approach is certainly subject to various criticisms ? perhaps the most important of these being that personality traits are not consistently manifested over time ? the trait model has remained useful in some arenas for helping people to understand human personality."
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"Criminal Procedure for the Criminal Justice Professional", 2005.
This paper is a book review of John Ferdico's "Criminal Procedure for the Criminal Justice Professional".
2,545 words (approx. 10.2 pages), 3 sources, APA, $ 77.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that, according to Ferdico, the law of criminal procedure can be described as rules designed to balance the important government functions of maintaining law and order and protecting the rights of citizens. The author points out that the "plain-view" doctrine is the procedure or rule that guides the officer in making a search of an individual or their property and in making an arrest of an individual; items in "plain view" or out in the open for view, may be seized by police in evidence in making an arrest for illegal possession of drugs and weapons. The paper concludes that Ferdico not only understands but also explains thoroughly arrest, questioning and processing procedures as well as the trial and case proceedings which are required by law enforcement, prosecution and defense in the 'criminal court procedures'.
Table of Contents
Statement of Thesis
Introduction
Right to a Fair Hearing/Trial
Double Jeopardy
Arrest Warrant
Probable Cause
Use of Force
The Standard of "Reasonableness"
Plain-view Doctrine
The Carroll Doctrine
Escobedo and Miranda
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Ferdico relates that there exists a conflict since the more "emphasis on maintaining law and order" ends up involving "greater intrusions" in the lives and in relation to the rights of the individual. In other words, policies of the government that are originally focused toward protection of the individual and maintaining law and order in the community may very well result in increased breaking and disrespect of the law that sought to protect. Ferdico next gives the history of the development of U.S. law relating the historical facts concerning the U.S. Constitution and the accompanying Bill of Rights. The laws governing rules and procedures and protecting the rights of the individual are based on the principles of Constitution in the United States of America, which is a country governed by democracy."
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Behind the Criminal Mind: Causes of Criminal Behavior, 2001.
This paper provides an in-depth look at the theories surrounding what causes people to act in a criminal manner, focusing on childhood and upbringing.
3,060 words (approx. 12.2 pages), 7 sources, $ 89.95
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Abstract
This essay examines crime and deviance, looking at the different theories on what causes criminal behavior with the main focus on the family and childhood. The author pays particular attention to the case of serial killer Henry Lee Lucas, exploring his childhood and linking it to his criminal behavior.
From the Paper
"Today, deviance and crime plague American society. There are vast degrees of deviance, from a simple shoplifter, to a car theft, to a killing machine with no conscience, otherwise known as the serial killer. But how is this killing machine created? Where and how does this type of criminal behavior begin? The answers to these questions must be addressed in order to stop the formation of this deviance. This essay will investigate the life of one of the most infamous serial killers, Henry Lee Lucas, to answer these questions. In the search for the answer, the question of nature vs. nurture is inevitably brought up. Scientists and psychologists have debated over whether a child?s upbringing forms their behavior or whether they are born with a personality. Most scientists believe that biological dysfunctions and physical illnesses are the factors that bring on this type of deviance. Most psychologists will argue family, society, environment, and the media cause criminal behavior. While many factors contribute to this frightening deviance, but the root of criminal behavior lies in the home and the family structure of children."
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Cross-Cultural Gender and Gender Relations in Horticultural Societies, 2002.
This paper examines the gender roles in horticultural societies.
1,990 words (approx. 8.0 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 63.95
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Abstract
This paper shows the difference that agriculturists, sedentary lifestyles, and social differentiation made in gender relationships.
From the Paper
"The first evidence of agriculturists, sedentary lifestyles, and social differentiation that archaeologists and anthropologists have distinguished come from groups termed Horticulturists. Though the past record remains relatively scant in regards, anthropologists have used existing ones as a locus of study and interpretation. More numerous than surviving hunter-gatherer groups, horticultural societies also show an incredible range of gender diversity between groups, more numerous, in fact, than any other extent societal model. The quantity of studies that has come as a result of this are astounding. Those done in the area of New Guinea alone, home to at least two hundred different horticultural societies, provide ample evidence to add weight to the debate of nurture over nature, by sheer examples of the differences in living and understanding gender roles in such a relatively small and homogenous environmental area. "
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