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Galileo and Luther on Rationalism and Empiricism, 2008.
An analysis of the philosophies of Martin Luther and Galileo with regards to empiricism and rationalism.
2,032 words (approx. 8.1 pages), 3 sources, APA, $ 64.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses how, as the explanatory power of empiricism began to grow apparent, rationalistic modes of belief and dogmas began to conflict with the verifiable truths the empirical approach to knowledge was uncovering. The paper then discusses the different schools of thought from which these philosophies have emerged in the Western tradition. It particularly focuses on the philosophies of Martin Luther and Galileo.
From the Paper
"Evolution implied that humans possessed a common ancestry with all animals and even plants. It may have been a matter of interpretation as to whether the earth revolved around the sun or not, but the concept that man is an ape who has been gradually evolving for 3.5 billion years fits nowhere into traditional Christian beliefs. Consequently, the theory--although as close to scientific fact as any fact ever inferred from the natural world--has remained controversial and not widely accepted in the west. So, it has only truly been in the past century and a half that science and religion have come faced off in a battle of wills. Still, the argument should be moot: empirical evidence may indicate one thing, but if an individual is willing to believe in an all-powerful being, they must also acknowledge that such a being could configure the world in any way imaginable--just as Galileo's Dialogue concluded."
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Rationalism versus Empiricism, 2005.
A discussion of Descartes's philosophy of rationalism versus the philosophy of empiricism.
1,458 words (approx. 5.8 pages), 1 source, APA, $ 48.95
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Abstract
This paper explains Descartes's philosophy of the human mind and how his philosophy, which contends that the real self is based not in the nature of the material body but rather in the essence of thought, differs from empiricism, which contends that the mind is informed by experience in a learning process that is based on sensation and cognition. The paper concludes with the author offering his personal perspective of Descartes's rationalism and whether it is applicable to his life and experiences.
From the Paper
"Empiricism focuses on the perceived fact that synthetic theories are only possible through experience and are therefore also subject to doubt, since experiences can be illusory or deceptive. This essential doubt is also something that is recognized by rationalists like Descartes, who then categorized the doubt as the mutability and fallibility of the senses. In terms of the absolutism of mind/body distinctions, empiricists are more hesitant to ascribe the realm of theory or logic to the formation of any truth that could be seen to be absolute and unquestioned such as reason or the power of deduction. Some criticize rationalism for assuming that only self-directed introspection can truly decipher reality in any productive or reasonable way. Descartes? rationalism led to further theories by Kant and others. Most social theories are given some context epistemologically, even those that seek to synthesize and combine different aspects of rationalism and empiricism. The two theories are often seen to be philosophical absolutes in and of themselves in their respective relations to the human mind as a separate and holistic entity in its relationship to the body."
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Empiricism & Rationalism, 1987.
Compares & contrasts experiential & thought-based approaches to reality in philosophy, biology and psychology.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 4 sources, $ 47.95
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From the Paper
" An analysis of the reviewed literature suggests that the dichotomies of authenticity versus certainty (Gibbs, 1979), inductive versus deductive, and abstract versus concrete (Weimer, 1973), etc., are opposites which exist on a continuum. Because they exist on a continuum, they are different aspects of a single, continuous phenomenon. Therefore, dichotomies such as inductive versus deductive reflect, not different realities, but different perspectives of the same reality. The perspective of the theorist, whether empiricist or rationalist, is thus(...)"
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Hume and Empiricism, 2006.
A discussion of David Hume's arguments regarding rationalism and empiricism in terms of the nature of causation.
1,050 words (approx. 4.2 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 36.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses David Hume's attack on rationalism in discussing the nature of causation and his promotion of the idea of empiricism. It discusses how Hume showed that expecting an effect to occur as a result of a cause was based solely on experience - the basis of empiricism and not on logic - the basis of rationalism. The paper also shows how Hume proved that rationalism alone could not discover cause and effect, but neither could it rationally exist.
From the Paper
"Hume argues that there is no proof of the necessary connection between cause and effect, as these are, as he concluded, empirical notions. Because empiricism does not rationally prove anything, but only suggest a strong likelihood of truth, cause cannot be rationally connected to effect, but only be conjoined to each other. However, due to the nature of empiricism, Hume argues that the connection can still exist, as it is perceived by the mind to exist. Therefore, we can only imagine cause and effect, but only in the mind. This means that cause and effect can only exist in the mind of the empiricist, who takes knowledge from experience without rational or scientific proof; yet ironically, it is scientific proofs which depend on observations from experience. Once more, the empiricist draws attention to the follies of pure rationalism."
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Continental Rationalism, 2005.
A discussion of the works and philosophy of Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz -- the key figures representing Continental rationalism.
1,347 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 7 sources, MLA, $ 45.95
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Abstract
This paper begins with an overview of rationalism and empiricism and then takes a look at the three key figures representing Continental rationalism: Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz. The paper then talks about the differences as well as the similarities in the works of the three philosophers.
From the Paper
"Continental rationalism argues essentially that the ultimate source of knowledge can be found within human reason. Further, Continental rationalism argues that truth can be deduced from our innate ideas, and mathematical proof ultimately became the model for rationalist investigation. This philosophical movement began in the 17th century with the work of the philosopher Rene Descartes, and spread through continental Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. Many of the philosophers who adopted Descartes' theories, or incorporated his ideas into Calvinistic theology, were termed as Cartesians. In contrast, a number of philosophers like Benedict Spinoza, and Gottfried Willhelm Leibniz adopted Descartes' ideas, and developed their own views within Descartes' overarching theme of human reason as ultimate source of knowledge (The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy; Solomon). "
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Constructivism and Rationalism, 2008.
A comparison between the philosophical strains of constructivism and rationalism.
1,010 words (approx. 4.0 pages), 5 sources, APA, $ 35.95
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Abstract
This paper compares and contrasts constructivism and rationalism, two philosophies that fundamentally oppose each other. The paper takes a particular look at Aristotle's constructivism and Plato/Socrates' rationalism. It argues that the core of this opposition is that, according to constructivism, human knowledge does not reflect reality, while rationalism believes that it does. The paper concludes that, despite its problematic nature, rationalism is a truer philosophical approach.
From the Paper
"Constructivist theory finds its roots in the ancient Greek philosophers, including Aristotle, who argued "man is the measure of all things". In other words, Aristotle believed that man, or the knowledge of man, is the accumulated result of the human experience, which is the cumulated result of the how humans have perceived their world as opposed to how their world actually is. Thus, human reality become reality not because its based in reason and rational thinking, but because it is what we have constructed it to be. As Kant stated in 1708: "The norm of the truth is to have made it" or simply the truth is what one makes true instead of what is actually true."
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Max Weber's Rationalism & the Law, 1996.
Examines concepts of rationality, ideal types, legitimate authority, social order, bureaucracy, charisma & applicability to 20th Cent. (Martin Luther King, O.J. Simpson case).
4,950 words (approx. 19.8 pages), 16 sources, $ 135.95
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From the Paper
"The purpose of this research is to examine Max Weber's sociological theory of rationality and ideal types and the use of that theory as it applies to Weber's sociology of law. The plan of the research will be to set forth in general terms Weber's approach to social theory, and then to see whether and to what extent it is useful in explaining ambiguous social phenomena, particularly those that give rise to questions about the sociology of the legal system. To this end, reference will be made to certain legal ambiguities raised by illustrative cases.
No discussion of Weber's theory of the sociology of law would be complete without reference to his social theory in general and his multifaceted treatment of rationality in particular. Indeed, his treatments of society, rationality, and law persistently overlap and converge; Weber's thought is ..."
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Empiricism, 2003.
A discussion of whether John Locke's theory of empiricism is still relevant in today's society.
773 words (approx. 3.1 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 27.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the philosopher John Locke's Locke?s theory of empiricism, that everything learned through previous experience, is accurate and relevant in today?s society. In particular it shows how although Locke?s proposal of empiricism is over 300 years old, all aspects are still applicable and how Locke?s rejection of innate ideas, his suggestion that all ideas are a result of reflection and sensation and that observations are either simple or complex, are precise and cannot be disproved in today?s society.
From the Paper
"Individuals often wonder why humans are able to think abstract thoughts and why animals are incapable of this. Locke proposed that in order for a thought to occur, the two foundations of knowledge must be present. These foundations are: observations of sensation and observations of reflection. External observation such as loud, red and cold are observations of sensation; they come to us through our senses. Internal observations such as thinking, remembering, and perceiving are observations of reflection. Locke states ?the senses at first let in particular ideas, and furnish the yet empty cabinet: and the mind by degrees growing familiar with some of them, they are logged in the memory, and names go to them? (Locke, 65). "
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John Locke's Proposal of Empiricism, 2003.
Examines the relevancy of John Locke's proposal of empiricism in today's society.
773 words (approx. 3.1 pages), 4 sources, APA, $ 27.95
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Abstract
This essay deals with John Locke's views and promotion of empiricism. The essay proves that Locke's theory of empiricism is still relevant in today's society. The main points of the essay deal with Locke's rejection of innate ideas, the fact that all ideas are a result of reflection or sensation, and that observations are either simple or complex.
From the Paper
"The idea that humans are born with prior knowledge is known as innate ideas. Innatists such as Plato believe that mental contents exist in the mind prior to any past experience. Locke highly disagrees with this concept and rejects every aspect of an idea being innate. Locke believes that since children and mentally disabled people cannot rationalize or think abstract thoughts like a mature person, ideas cannot be innate. Locke states ???tis evident that all children and idiots, have not the least apprehension or thought of them: and the want of that is enough to destroy that universal assent, which must needs be the necessary concomitant of all innate truths?? (Locke, 60). Locke believes that since children and those who are mentally disabled cannot think as complexly as grown adults, it is because they have to gain knowledge through life experiences, therefore, ideas cannot be innate. Locke also suggests that ideas cannot be innate because he strongly believes in, and promotes the theory of empiricism. Locke believes ?the mind to be, as we say, white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas? (Locke, 109). Locke holds that we come into the world with a clear mind ready to learn. If innate ideas were true then children would have the same knowledge as an adult has, though it is clear that children do not. Today, Locke?s rejection of innate ideas and promotion of empiricism is an acceptable explanation for the way humans think. Humanity accepts Locke?s explanation because it is very relevant and cannot be disproved."
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Rationalism vs Orthodoxy, 2005.
This paper discusses rationalism versus orthodoxy in the problem of the creation of the Qur'an.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 2 sources, $ 53.95
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This paper looks at the theological debate within Islam over the problem of the creation of the Qur'an. The writer discusses that this issue has sometimes been viewed as a conflict between reason and rationalism as represented by Mu'tazilite thought and traditional orthodoxy as represented by the Hanbalite school of thought. This essay examines the main points of disagreement.
From the Paper
"The theological debate within Islam over the problem of the creation of the Qur'an has sometimes been represented as a conflict between reason and rationalism (as represented by Mu'tazilite thought) and traditional orthodoxy (as represented by the Hanbalite school of thought). While this generalization has some points of validity, it does not capture the full complexity of the debate over the creation of the Qur'an, nor the significant implications of this difference for how Muslims understand the existence of God and his role in their daily lives."
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Cartesian Rationalism, 2002.
A discussion of Cartesian Rationalism.
650 words (approx. 2.6 pages), 1 source, $ 26.95
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Abstract
This three-page undergraduate paper discusses Cartesian rationalism, explains what is rationalistic about Descartes' thinking, and reflects upon what Descartes hoped to achieve through philosophical reflection.
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Administrative Rationalism, 2005.
A discussion into the way that administrative rationalism relates to the environment.
1,800 words (approx. 7.2 pages), 4 sources, $ 71.95
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This paper discusses the concept of administrative rationalism, which supposes that those in power within the environmental agencies of the country have a solid expertise in their fields. Furthermore, it suggests that these individuals have the relevant technical knowledge, the necessary authority, and will act in the public interest.
From the Paper
"Administrative Rationalism and the Environment The concept of administrative rationalism supposes that those in power within the environmental agencies of the country have a solid expertise in their fields. Furthermore, these individuals have the relevant technical knowledge, the necessary authority, and will act in the public interest (Howes). Administrative rationalism is directly related to the functions of the individual in the position of authority when issues relating to the environment are concerned, and the expertise that is considered viable for these individuals does not call upon outside sources to make determinations of policy. Howes contends that administrative rationalism exists in the areas of, o professional resource management bureaucracies; o pollution control agencies o regulatory policy instruments o environmental impact assessment o expert advisory commissions (Howes)."
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Philosophy: Empiricism, 2005.
An overview of empiricism and a discussion of whether it evolves into idealism.
1,641 words (approx. 6.6 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 53.95
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This paper considers the question of whether empiricism, if followed consistently, collapses into idealism and concludes that, with some reservations, it does indeed evolve into idealism.
From the Paper
"It is important at first to identify the fact that "empiricism" may refer to a method - for example, the "empirical method" of observing child behavior, or an "empirical study of cancer in rats" - and it also may refer to the philosophy (or the theory) that embraces empiricism. That philosophy of empiricism, by one definition, "has its roots in dualist theories of perception and communication" (Vesey, 1976). The "perception" part of the theory, Vesey explains (vii), is when a person's mind, "as well as his body, is acted on when he perceives something." That is to say, that "something" that his body is acted upon - let's say it is a large tree swaying in the wind - stimulates his sense organs and his nervous system; but beyond that stimulation, there is also a "sensation" or a "sense-impression" which happens when the mind is acted on, according to the theory. "
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Empiricism and Liberalism in Writings by Locke, 2004.
Examines philosophies of empiricism and liberalism in John Locke?s "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" and "An Essay Concerning the True Original Extent and End of the Civil Government".
1,922 words (approx. 7.7 pages), 2 sources, APA, $ 61.95
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John Locke, one of the famous proponents of the Enlightenment period, was a political philosopher who contributed profound knowledge and insights about a new form of political movement in his period, that is, political liberalism. This paper shows that Locke's arguments for empiricism and liberalism as new philosophies, which illustrate relativism in the society, are discussed thoroughly in two of his most popular discourses on the social and political nature of human society: "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" and "An Essay Concerning the True Original Extent and End of the Civil Government (Second Treatise of the Civil Government)". The particular text that is analyzed in this paper is Book IV ?Of Knowledge and Probability,? particularly the first chapter, aptly entitled ?Of Knowledge in General.?
From the Paper
"In this section, Locke illustrates in concrete terms the fundamental concepts and processes that lead to the obtainment and development of knowledge among humans. In establishing his stance that human knowledge is acquired through human experience, he discusses the nature of knowledge, its components, and processes. Introducing knowledge as a product of human sensory experience, Locke asserts, ?Knowledge is the perception of the agreement or disagreement of two ideas. Knowledge then seems to me to be nothing but the perception of the connexion of and agreement, or disagreement and repugnancy of any of our ideas. In this alone it consists.? This passage shows how knowledge is mainly a natural experience, where there is active human action (participation)."
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Descartes' Nativism vs. Locke's Empiricism, 2002.
Defines and contrasts the philosophical doctrines of Descartes' Nativism and Locke's Empiricism.
650 words (approx. 2.6 pages), 3 sources, $ 26.95
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Abstract
Nativist thought, that which focuses on the idea that there are some "innate ideas existing prior to concrete experience (Fancher, 26), allows for the existence of archetypal knowledge and a communal unconscious. Empiricism is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that all knowledge is derived from experience. According to the empiricist, all ideas are derived from experience. Nativism, as espoused by Descartes, requires that the soul be embodied with knowledge and experience prior to association with the body.
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