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"Dictionary of the English Language", 2008.
This paper reveals the history of Samuel Johnson's "Dictionary of the English Language."
2,420 words (approx. 9.7 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 73.95
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Abstract
The paper describes how Samuel Johnson created the most influential dictionary in the history of the English language. The paper illustrates how Johnson beat all odds, including financial constraints, illness and the death of his wife, to create this important piece of literature. The paper shows how, not only does the dictionary offer a glimpse into 18th century British life, it is also an autobiography of sorts of Johnson himself.
From the Paper
"Samuel Johnson created, singlehandedly, the most influential dictionary in the history of the English language. The Dictionary of the English Language was published in 1775, and took nine years to complete. Although the Dictionary would now be considered obsolete, it was the most reliable dictionary until the appearance of Noah Webster's American dictionary at the end of the nineteenth century. The Dictionary is unique in many aspects, but most notably in that it was the first to feature illustrative quotations--and there are thousands of them (Millward 240). What is perhaps more intriguing than the dictionary itself is the story behind its creation and its creator."
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"A Dictionary of the English Language", 2006.
Examines this text by Samuel Johnson.
740 words (approx. 3.0 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 26.95
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Abstract
Samuel Johnson was a writer who completed the first real modern dictionary nearly single-handedly. This paper examines his text, "A Dictionary of the English Language" and shows how Johnson's eccentric character affected his writing.
From the Paper
"He wrote the definitions of more than 40,000 words, but he also gave illustrations of how they were used in the language. This was an amazing feat at the time, and still is. He also used humor in his writing, which would not be acceptable in a reference book today. For example, he wrote several definitions in the dictionary that were funny and enjoyable, such as, "'Excise: a hateful tax levied upon commodities...'; 'Lexicographer: a writer of dictionaries, a harmless drudge...'; and 'Oats: a grain which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people'"..."
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Comparative Grammar Guidelines: Split Infinitive, 2007.
This paper contrasts the definition of the grammatical term 'split infinitive' as presented in "Webster's Dictionary of English Usage", "The Guide to Canadian Language Usage" and "A Dictionary of Modern English Usage".
895 words (approx. 3.6 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 31.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that, by analyzing the similar and contrasting definitions of the use of the split infinitive, the reader can realize how different guides use different objectives to impart a meaning to various grammatical terms. The author points out that, in discussing the split infinitive, the "Webster Guide" makes a faulty assumption that popular literature and various theorists have defined the syntactical usage with a far wider meaning. The paper concludes that the definitions of the split infinitive as a misnomer appear logically and grammatically adequate in the "Webster Guide"; while the "Canadian Guide" provides a more detailed explanation of usage within certain styles of speech and writing. The paper includes several quotations.
From the Paper
"In this manner, the term is being nullified since it does not really represent a technical "splitting" of the infinitive within a technical usage format. The appurtenant aspect of the infinitive provides a grammatical explanation of why the "Webster Guide" does not agree that the term is valid in language other than slang. However, the "Guide to Canadian English Usage" tends to propose that, although a split infinitive may not be a correct form of writing, it can still be seen as a definitive explanation for syntactical alignment of these words within a social and standardized written context:"
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English Structure vs. Russian Translation, 2005.
A report on the structure of the English and Russian languages as they pertain to the unique skill of translation.
3,107 words (approx. 12.4 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 90.95
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Abstract
This report focuses on differences between the Russian and English languages in terms of word and object meanings, direct translations, sayings, rules in grammar and other critical lexical rules such slang and idiom use.
Introduction
History of Russian in America
Lexicography
Semasiology
Russian Structure
Translation by Dictionary
Conclusion
From the Paper
"The actions of Post World War II Soviet Union and World War II itself were major reasons for Russian becoming a common course in American colleges. Prior to 1940, there were less than twenty universities in America offering Russian language programs and less than fifty percent of those had a true Russian/Slavic department. Other tell-tale signs of the popularity of Russian in American schools can be demonstrated by the fact that there were only three Russian doctoral programs at the time of post World War II Europe. However, relations with the Soviet Union grew as a result of the war which also had the dramatic affect of increasing an interest in the Russian language. The war therefore increased the number of universities in the United States offering Russian to over one hundred ninety in the 1950's."
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Language Planning, 2003.
Presents a theoretic view of language planning (LP).
3,538 words (approx. 14.2 pages), 4 sources, APA, $ 99.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that language policy is a big problem in developing countries, especially in the Maghreb world, which was under the French rule: Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco. The paper defines language planning (LP) as the activity of preparing a normative orthography, grammar and dictionary for the guidance of writers and speakers in a non-homogeneous speech community and relates that language planning includes language policy. The paper then discusses corpus, status and acquisition planning using examples mainly from the French Academy and the Hebrew revival movement.
Table of Contents:
A Theoretical View on Language Planning (LP)
Introduction
Definitions and Elements of LP
The Term "Language Planning"
Two Different Definitions of LP
Elements of Language Planning
Types of Language Planning
Corpus Planning
Status Planning
Acquisition Planning
Examples of Language Planning and Language Planning Policies
The "Academie Francaise" as an Example of Corpus Planning
The Promotion of Hebrew in Palestine as an Example of Status Planning
Examples of Language Planning Policies: Policy A, B, C.....
From the Paper
"Richelieu established the AF. In 1624, he became first minister in Louis XIII. Richelieu was so close to artists, writers in particular. In 1629, a group of men interested in language and literature started to meet at a rich man's house just for conversation. Richelieu wanted to transform this club into an official institution serving the country. He formed this group into an official body. He had a political purpose. He wanted them to work on his behalf by supporting his policies, which is the main reason behind his finding of the AF. "
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Origins of New English Words, 2002.
This paper is a research project that studies recent additions to the English language, the word formation processes, and the general subject areas to which these new words belong.
970 words (approx. 3.9 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 34.95
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Abstract
This paper reports that, to get a representative sample of new words, all 101 entries in the T, U, and V sections of the Oxford Dictionary of New Words, published in 1997, were used as a sample. The author states that the sample reveals a very low degree of borrowing from other languages; instead, internal word formation processes, such as compounding, semantic change, derivation, and abbreviation are used to form the new words. The paper concludes that, as long as English is a dominant global language, it is unlikely that this trend towards internal coinage in favor of borrowing will change.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Instead, compounding was used to form the majority (40%) of the new words in the sample. These were often adjective-noun or noun-noun compounds such as ?tight building syndrome? and ?theme park?. This process produces words that are usually self-evident in a simple, logical manner, and it is hardly surprising that it is as frequently used in the formation of new words today as it has been throughout the history of the language.Derivation processes were used to form about 12% of the sample. As well as existing affixes being attached to existing words (?tankie?), a number of new prefixes and suffixes such as ?-ware? and ?techno-? were attached to pre-existing words to create new lexical items (?technobabble?)."
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Language Use, 2003.
Discusses the difference between prescriptive and descriptive language.
900 words (approx. 3.6 pages), 5 sources, $ 31.95
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Abstract
Discusses how words are used, the emphasis on grammar, not acceptance of new words. Looks at Simon Winchester's account of how the "Oxford English Dictionary" (OED) came into being. Discusses Samuel Johnson's dictionary.
From the Paper
"This research takes the form of an informative essay on the subject of the distinction between prescriptive and descriptive language use. The topic of research was chosen based on Winchester's account of how the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) came into ..."
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A Dictionary of the Old Testament, 2006.
A review and analysis of Desmond Alexander's and David Baker's book, "Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch".
934 words (approx. 3.7 pages), 1 source, APA, $ 33.95
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Abstract
This paper introduces, discusses and reviews the book "Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch" by Desmond Alexander and David Baker. The paper explains that, although the title of the book would leave one questioning what light a dictionary could possibly shed on one's theological and philosophical understanding of the Old Testament, the book does, in fact, have a lot to offer its readers and contains a clear message and mission about the Old Testament.
From the Paper
"The section of the authors on the "Image of God" is perhaps the most powerful example of how a dictionary format can be instructive as a way of teaching an individual about the theological and historical nuances of the Bible. Rather than seeking the Image of God as a particular doctrine, expressed differently and piecemeal in a few texts, or pertaining only to the Genesis creation myth, the authors trace how humanity was made in the image of God, and yet connect this concept to the mention of God's image in other texts of the books of Moses, such as the condemnation of idolatry in the story of the Golden Calf and in the Ten Commandments. They stress how God's Image in the Pentateuch was also regarded as sacred thing, not a part of the idolatrous worship of the human-created image common to paganism."
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Designing a Bilingual Dictionary, 2008.
A paper describing how to compile a good bilingual dictionary.
1,800 words (approx. 7.2 pages), 13 sources, APA, $ 57.95
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Abstract
This paper describes the process of devising a reliable bilingual dictionary and points out the many obstacles and rules that need to be taken into consideration. The paper asserts that the finished product is undoubtedly the language student's best friend and therefore must be well-planned, logically constructed and thoughtfully prepared.
From the Paper
" In order to be an effective reference tool, the bilingual dictionary must adhere to a host of conditions which are overseen by its lexicographer. The responsibility of greatest importance to the lexicographer is actually selecting the terminology which is used to convey meaning. The two variables of central concern in conveying an idea or meaning as these are represented in separate languages are the 'source language' and the 'target language.' The source language is the one by which each entry is arranged. Depending upon the presentation, which tends most often by practical intuition to be alphabetical, these entry terms are usually transcribed in the native language of the dictionary-user. An effective bilingual dictionary will, in the determination of its source language entry terminology and its correspondent target language terminology, abide three primary criteria.
In defining suitable relationships which attribute equivalence to source and target terms, the lexicographer must first seek to achieve descriptive adequacy. According to linguistic expert James Manley, it can be said that a term is adequately descriptive if "it is comprehensible and directs our attention to the object under discussion." Under such conditions, that the terminology is suggestive of a relationship with the object to which it is intended will support the legitimacy and effectiveness of a bilingual dictionary.
"The second condition of prime importance is the provision of terminology which is not ambiguous in its assertion of meaning. This can be confounded by the presence of single words that are known to possess multiple meanings in a source language but which are represented by two separate terms in a target language. Homographs, as these are referred to in the English language, may cause a discrepancy in meaning in spite of the apparently direct literal translation from a source term to a target term. Such ambiguity may often be countered by the most popular mode of bilingual dictionary presentation, in which a bi-directional layout may allow the user to cross-check the results of a mono-directional (source to target) translation. This is a usage however that depends as largely on the proper implementation by the user as on the conduciveness of structure as composed by the lexicographer."
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English Teaching Methodolodgy - ESL (English Second Language), 2002.
This paper explores some of the fundemental principles of teaching English as a second language.
830 words (approx. 3.3 pages), 2 sources, MLA, $ 29.95
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Abstract
This paper serves as a guide for teaching students English as a second language. It is divided into three parts. The first part deals with the first three weeks of educating a group that has never before learned English. The paper explains the characteristics of the material intended to be taught. It also clarifies what one should do if the students made mistakes and deals with ways of encouraging students to talk. The second part of the paper explores the required environment for second language acquisition and the thirds part discusses factors that are beneficial for second language learning efforts.
From the Paper
"First impressions are important in establishing a good relationship between teachers and students. Foreign students often come to the classroom with many fears. (Cary, 2000) Therefore, it is very important that the teacher establish a friendly, enthusiastic atmosphere free of any negative vibes. (Samway, 1999) Even though the students are afraid, this can be eased by a friendly smile and pleasant small talk. This is especially important before giving any sort of assessment test, which should be given during the first class of the term as part of class orientation."
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African-American Literature, 2005.
This paper discusses the use of the English language in African-American literature by Ralph Ellison's novel "Invisible Man" ("The Battle Royal" scene) and Harryette Mullen's poem "Sleeping with the Dictionary".
1,100 words (approx. 4.4 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 38.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that Ralph Ellison's and Harryette Mullen's respective use of language represent descriptive language usage within two entirely different literary genres (fiction vs. poetry) and contexts (a public speech vs. a private bedroom). The author points out that Ellison's use of language is vividly descriptive, harsh at times, non-playful and non-alliterative; whereas, Mullen's use of language to playfully describe a solitary bedroom setting is relaxed, playful, metaphorical and alliterative. The paper relates that these differences are due to social context: Ellison's black speaker (the powerless) is publicly addressing a group of whites (the powerful); whereas, Mullen's speaker is relaxing at home with a much-loved though inanimate object.
From the Paper
"Not only is the dictionary used as metaphor for an erotic lover; within lines 16-18 Mullen's speaker even metaphorically describes the sex act, using doubly-denotative words and phrases like: "Aroused"; "perverse positions"; "nightly act"; "penetration." Later, in the final line, yet another playfully metaphorical phrase appears, describing nighttime decoding of the dictionary's messages as similar to deciphering "the secret acrostic of a lover's name" (line 23). Like an illicit love relationship, then, relationship of speaker to the dictionary ("taking the big dictionary to bed" (line 8)) is secretive, stimulating, and filled with new and exciting discoveries. "
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Matthew Arnold: Late Victorian English Poet and Critic, 2002.
This paper discuses Matthew Arnold's critical analysis of English culture and the English nation during late the Victorian period.
1,205 words (approx. 4.8 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 41.95
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Abstract
The author states the late Victorian period in England was a unique time in that country?s literary history. Both literature and the political culture supported one another by different notions of England?s future. Matthew Arnold addressed directly issues of the purpose of English culture and the English nation.
From the Paper
"Matthew Arnold was a conservative writer in the sense that he was not egalitarian. He feared an intrusion of ?vulgarity? into the culture and of ?Philistine populism.? (Wilson xvii; xvii) But his ideas were more complex than that. Arnold did believe that the essential thrust of English development should not be so much to expand its physical boundaries, but to create a culture of, as he termed it, ?Sweetness and Light.? "
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The Future of English and Mother Tongue, 2001.
This essay deals with shifts of languages other than English and the globalization of English.
1,900 words (approx. 7.6 pages), 6 sources, APA, $ 60.95
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Abstract
A personal opinion paper which addresses the following questions - Does globalization of English form a serious threat? Do languages other than English face a slow death? This essays argues the eminent future of English and mother tongue.
From the Paper
"It appears that English is to become the main language in Europe, and perhaps the world. This topic has been discussed extensively and widely and there has been massive scientific research in recent years. I came upon the article ?The Great English Divide? merely by chance, and the discussion caught my particular interest, as I am a Dutch-speaking Belgian, living in multi-lingual South Africa and currently studying towards a degree in English. I surfed the Internet, and found hundreds of articles discussing this same subject. The articles of my choice are only a few examples. Professor David Crystal has nominated a book to the subject ?English as a global language? , where he researched these three questions: What makes a world language? Why is English the leading candidate? Will it continue to hold that position? David Crystal has written a number of books on the topic itself. My main interest is how this globalisation of the English Language will influence English as a language. Is the idea of globalisation of English not just a triumphalist notion? Will the increase of the use of English in non-English speaking countries change English vocabulary and grammar? Will the use of 'Fusion English' increase? Paradoxically, could it mean that the population of Europe will become monolingual and could therefore mother languages become extinct?"
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Data Dictionaries, 2007.
This paper looks at the importance of a data dictionary that locates the contents of a particular database.
802 words (approx. 3.2 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 28.95
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Abstract
The paper discusses how the need for an indexing/recording system or data dictionary is paramount in order to retrieve needed information in the shortest possible time. The paper explains that a simple data dictionary is an alphabetic list of tables and columns and their descriptions and some technical details like data types and default values. The paper notes that implementation of a data dictionary should be at the onset of database development. Finally, the paper looks at the American Health Information Management Association's 14-point guidelines for developing a data dictionary.
From the Paper
"Databases are often referred to as the 21st century filing cabinets. The filing cabinets of the 20th century have files, records and forms, and so do today's databases. Whereas the filing cabinets have logbooks and indexes that determine where and what are the contents of a particular filing cabinet, databases have data dictionaries that locate contents in a particular database. "A simple spreadsheet or even index cards, crude as they are, are far better than no data-dictionary at all. The criterion is understandability, not ease of maintenance. "Weisert, 2003)"
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Who and Which in Bulgarian and English, 2006.
Examines problems of number and gender transfer when translating "who" and "which" from Bulgarian into English.
4,983 words (approx. 19.9 pages), 8 sources, MLA, $ 126.95
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Abstract
There are a number of problems that a translator might come upon when translating wh- words from Bulgarian into English. This paper looks at "who" and "which" in particular. Why is there a problem? In English, "who" and "which" do not take grammatical markers for gender and number, while in Bulgarian they do . In English and Bulgarian, gender is grammaticalized differently. This particularity is sometimes considered a problem for certain translations from Bulgarian, and more specifically, when gender seems of importance to the Bulgarian text. This paper deals with the notions of grammatical and semantic gender only because the former exists in Bulgarian and the latter is used in English. This paper begins with some preliminary remarks, exposing the differences between Bulgarian and English when it comes to number and gender markings. Some translation examples are discussed in more detail in the section entitled "Examples". It must be pointed out that the paper investigates only one side of the problem, where Bulgarian is the source language and English is the target language. Back translation is not discussed here. The main focus is on how gender itself is produced and translated. Following paragraphs clarify what gender is in both languages and what problems translators might encounter if they choose to transfer a gendered reference from Bulgarian into English.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Preliminary Remarks on Gender and Number in English and Bulgarian
Who and Which in English
Who and Which in Bulgarian
Examples
Conclusions
Bibliography
From the Paper
"In the extra-linguistic world, gender is a physiological phenomenon connected with the structure of some living beings. There are objects with no sex (inanimate) and others with sex (animate). The category of sex has two exponents (male and female). These facts can be reflected in language since gender markings in a given language are, on the first place, categories established through our contact with the natural differences between the sexes and between what we have called "the animate" and "the inanimate". Thus, the linguistic exponent of sex has the following grammatical and/or lexical correspondences in English:
1 M / he male (animate) boy, father, John, etc.
2 F / she female (animate) girl, mother, Mary, etc.
3 N / it O gender (inanimate/undetermined) cat, stone, table, baby (if sex unknown)"
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