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T- Cell B-Cell Collaborations in the Immune System, 2001.
A descriptive overview of the vertebrate adaptive immune response to both intra and extra-cellular pathogens with explicit focus on T-cell B-cell collaboration and antibody response.
1,425 words (approx. 5.7 pages), 9 sources, APA, $ 47.95
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Abstract
This paper covers the major pathways by which foreign antigens are identified and dealt with through the adaptive immune response which is paramount on B-cell and T-cell responses and interaction with one another in distinct pathways and steps. It includes several diagrams and their explanations of antigens, B-Cells, T-Cells, APC's and more and their interactions and processes they go through.
From the Paper
"All immune responses involving T-cell B-cell collaborations follow distinct pathways of interactions and development. These very pathways of the adaptive immune response are almost entirely dependant on the cellular interaction of B- cells and T- cells with one another. It is within each stage of these pathways and the progression of an adaptive immune response that we will concern ourselves. The following is a condensed synopsis of the adaptive immune response and the cellular interactions that will be the emphasis of this paper. Within secondary lymph tissues foreign antigen is presented to naive B-cells via their surface immunoglobulins (Igs) receptors. The same antigen is also presented to naive T-cells at this time. This presentation and subsequent recognition of antigen by both types of cells results in and end product of proliferation and development of naive B-cells into plasma cells whose function is the production of soluble immunoglobulins (antibodies), and the differentiation and development of memory B-cells whose function is to respond to subsequent exposure to the same antigen. However, this pathway is not self-sufficient and requires the direct interaction of activated T-cells, specifically ?helper? T-cells (Th2 cells) 1,9. It is these T-cells in conjunction with the antigen presenting B-cells that interact to produce a hormonal response to infection. These interactions activate Th2 cells that in turn promote B-cell activation both through T-cell secreted cytokines, (interlukeinI1-2, 4 and 5), and also through direct cell to cell contacts involving specific surface proteins and corresponding receptors and the signaling initiated by the binding of these proteins to one another."
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Stem Cells, 2006.
An overview of the nature of stem cells, stem cell research, and the controversy surrounding the use of stem cells from human embryos.
675 words (approx. 2.7 pages), 3 sources, $ 26.95
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Abstract
The different types of stem cell research involve the use of human eggs - and embryos - as intermediates and are at the center of controversy as to whether it should be considered human life. Recent advances are attempting to produce non-embryonic stem cells as well as address the said issue. This paper discusses the nature of stem cells, what they are, how they are produced and the issues surrounding them.
From the Paper
"Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that have the potential to develop and proliferate into more specialized cells such as neurons or skin cells. These specialized somatic cells comprise the different tissues and organs of the human body. The cloning process currently in use involves the use of the cellular machinery of an egg cell and the genetic material encoded in the nucleus of a somatic cell called somatic cell nuclear transplant (SCNT). First, the egg cell is secured to stabilize it. A needle is inserted into the egg to extract the nucleus and DNA."
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Cell Size, 2006.
A look at the metabollic reactions of the cell and how this affects cell size.
675 words (approx. 2.7 pages), 3 sources, $ 26.95
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Abstract
The cell engulfs food oxygen and lets out carbon dioxide yet everything must go through the cell membrane which is also the total surface area of the cell. This paper discusses metabollic processes within the cell and how these processes affect the cell's size.
From the Paper
"The nucleus and cytoplasm use oxygen and food while producing waste through volume and weight. At times, the cell needs more membrane space in order to provide greater area for intake of oxygen and food and to release waste. However, as the cell grows larger, the ratio of the total surface area-weight ratio decreases. In other words, the greater cell content needs more oxygen and food than the membrane can take in and produces more waste than the membrane can release; its hydrophobic interior excludes the aqueous solutions of the cytoplasm and the external environment. "Although a large cell would be able to withstand more metabolic reactions (due to its larger volume) than a smaller cell, the larger..."
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Stem Cells, 2005.
A brief review on the applications of stem cells in human development.
5,166 words (approx. 20.7 pages), 40 sources, APA, $ 129.95
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Abstract
The paper discusses stem cells in human development, a specialized topic in developmental biology, focusing on potential cures for fetal malformations, via stem cell therapies and stem cells characteristics in general. The paper notes that the most promising use of stem cells is their ability to serve as a potential source of replacement cells to treat numerous diseases, such as Parkinson''s disease, Alzheimer's disease, ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis), cancer, and heart disease. The paper further notes that any disease in which there is tissue degeneration can be a potential candidate for stem cell therapies, including spinal cord injury, stroke, burns, heart disease, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, muscular dystrophy and liver disease. The paper includes photographs.
Outline:
Abstract
What are Stem Cells?
Types of Stem Cells
Embryonic Germ Layers From Which Differentiated Tissues Develop,
Mechanisms of Action:
Characteristics and Potential Uses
Hematopoietic and Stromal Stem Cell Differentiation
Human Embryonic Germ Cells
Human Adult Stem Cells
Summary of Animal Experiments
Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells
Bovine Embryonic Stem Cells' Studies
Primate Embryonic Stem Cells' Studies
Miscellaneous Animal Studies
Migration of Transplanted Human Cells
Survival of hCNS-derived neurospheres in the ischemic brain.
In Utero Stem Cell Therapy - Stem Cell Transplantation in the Fetus
Ontogeny of Hematopoiesis in Humans
In Utero Stem Cell Therapy in the Mouse
Conclusions
From the Paper
"Embryonic stem cells are difficult to control, as they behave in an unstable manner resulting in unexpected results as they divide, or even cancerous growths. They are indeed more difficult to maintain and expand in culture (Van Blerkom, 1994). ES differ substantially from the stem cells found within the fully developed adult where they can be totally quiescent. Human ES cells may cause an immune reaction when transplanted into people, which means cells used in treatment may be rapidly destroyed unless they are protected by giving medication to suppress the immune system. It appears though that if stem cells were someday to be used for the treatment of disease, there would be greater advantage in using ES cells. "
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Stem Cells, 2002.
This is a persuasive essay on the use of stem cell research and how the cells are derived.
2,155 words (approx. 8.6 pages), 0 sources, MLA, $ 67.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the controversial issue of stem cell research in the U.S. It conveys the negativity of using human embryos, but also expresses the positive uses of adult stem cells. The author includes remarks made by President George W. Bush, numerous quotes and reference pages and websites.
From the Paper
"The issue of using stem cells (embryonic and adult) is a heated debate among many citizens of the United States. Many people are against all types of research, but do not understand what it is about or what the research can be used for. There are many points that need to be made so people will know that not all stem cell research is harmful, or destroys human life. Embryonic stem cell research can be, and should be avoided, especially when there are other options available to us. Adult stem cell research is an available option that is being used in all parts of the world to find new discoveries. Once society agrees to certain forms of research, scientists may be able to use the research to obtain cures for numerous diseases."
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Stem Cells, 2004.
This paper discusses stem cell research, one of the most truly revolutionary medical science developments.
1,755 words (approx. 7.0 pages), 10 sources, APA, $ 56.95
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Abstract
This paper explains the potential benefits of stem cells result from the fact that they can transform themselves into literally any cell in the body, thus replacing the injured or damaged organs, which will render today's medicines obsolete. The author points out that there are formidable challenges to be overcome; the most serious is the 'ethical' opposition to stem cell research led by pro-life advocates who consider the use of embryos for creating stem cell lines as the killing of potential human beings. This has resulted in restriction of federal funding for stem cell research. The paper states that there are several formidable scientific barriers, such as the tendency of the immune systems to attack transplanted cells, which have to be crossed; therefore, the author believes that stem cell research deserves full support.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Types of Stem Cells
How Are Stem Cell Lines Created?
Sources of Stem Cells for Research Purposes
Fertility Clinics
Aborted Fetuses
Cloning
Made to Order
The Ethics of Stem Cell Research
Arguments Against Stem Cell Research Arguments for Stem Cell Research
Other Ethical Concerns
Issue of Federal Funding
Conclusion
From the Paper
"One of the most dramatic breakthroughs in the history of biological research occurred in November 1998, when two independent teams of American researchers managed to isolate and grow a special kind of human cell called the stem cell. Until then, scientists had struggled long and hard to isolate the elusive cells but capturing them had proved difficult. One reason for this difficulty was that most stem cells only exist in their original form for a short time before turning into the various specialized cells of the body; the other was that the cells need a highly specialized environment to keep them alive outside the body. Other scientists had previously succeeded in culturing stem cells for only short periods; the 'breakthrough' accomplishment was that the pioneering scientists successfully created conditions under which the stem cells could replicate over time without specializing."
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Stem Cell Research in the United States, 2004.
This paper explores the legal and moral issues of the stem cell research debate. It also explores the uses of adult stem cells as an alternative to embryonic stem cells.
1,941 words (approx. 7.8 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 61.95
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Abstract
The paper first briefly defines stem cell research in all its forms (embryonic, adult, umbilical). It next explores whether the young fetus should actually be considered a 'life-form'. The political portion of the paper revolves around President Bush's policies and California's Proposition 71. Finally, the argument is made that alternatives to embryonic stem cells represent the only moral choice, especially at this early stage of research.
From the Paper
"There are too many unanswered questions and unknowns when it comes to stem cell research, embryonic or not. There is promising research being made on adult stem cells and umbilical cells as we speak. Shouldn?t these avenues be completely explored before we even discuss destroying another embryo in the name of science? I would think so. The greatness of humankind can be measured by its accomplishments, but accomplishments made without regard to morals can destroy us. This is the course we must avoid. We must not sacrifice life with blind hopes of scientific advancement. We must not sacrifice one life to cure another."
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Stem Cell Research, 2005.
This paper explains that stem cell research is leading scientists to investigate the possibility of treating disease with cell-based therapies, often referred to as regenerative or reparative medicine.
1,580 words (approx. 6.3 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 51.95
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Abstract
This paper relates that implanted stem cells used to repair or replace damaged tissues are less likely to be rejected by the body's immune system than other foreign cells. The author points out that germ line cells and adult stem cells are less versatile than embryonic stem cells, which can develop into every type of tissue found in an adult; however, the processes that control this development are at present not fully understood. The paper discusses that BioMark International, a privately funded Biotech Group, provides access to a unique method of Cord Blood Stem Cell (CBSC)processing by which CBSCs are derived from the umbilical cords from natural full term births of consenting mothers, all of whom have been tested according to standards set by the American Association of Blood Banks .
From the Paper
"In May 2004, Nancy Reagan, whose husband former President Ronald Reagan was at the time suffering the advanced stages of Alzheimer's disease, urged the Bush administration to support embryonic stem cell research and said that too much time had been wasted discussing the issue. Although a Republican, Mrs. Reagan has been critical of the Bush administration for blocking public funding of stem cell research due to the party's ethical reservations concerning embryo research. Speaking at a fundraising dinner for the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation, she said she believed the research could lead to a cure for Alzheimer's disease, and "may provide our scientists with many answers that for so long have been beyond our grasp...I just don't see how we can turn our backs on this...We have lost so much time already...I just really can't bear to lose any more.""
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Polycomb Regulation of Embryonic Stem Cell Differentiation, 2006.
A discussion of polycomb regulation of embryonic stem cell differentiation and its potential as a cure for degenerative diseases.
3,470 words (approx. 13.9 pages), 13 sources, APA, $ 97.95
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Abstract
This paper takes a look at the functioning of embryonic stem (ES) cells, with particular focus on polycomb regulation. It maintains that ES cells are of great importance as they have the flexibility to give rise to any cell type in the body. It also adds that they can also be kept in an undifferentiated state and selectively induced to form any specialized cell types, which could potentially replace cells lost or damaged by disease. The paper points out that such knowledge has immense significance as it can help people who are suffering from various degenerative diseases or other tragedies. The paper includes charts, graphs and illustrations. It concludes that future studies are required to delve further into the not fully understood mechanisms by which ES cells self-renew, while maintaining the ability to differentiate into virtually all adult cell types.
Outline:
Experimental Procedures
Cells and Cell Culture
Chromatin Immunoprecipitation and DNA Microarray Analysis
Gene Expression Analysis
Future Experiments
From the Paper
"Polycomb silencing mechanisms were first discovered in Drosophila as functions essential for the regulated expression of homeotic genes during development (Lewis, 1978). The Polycomb gene of Drosophila is a member of a large class of genes required for the segment-specific repression of homeotic selector genes (Paro & Hogness, 1991). PcG and their complexes are essentially conserved from insects to mammals. PcG genes do not constitute a family, but a diverse group originally defined by the fact that loss of function of each member has similar consequences in depression of the homeotic genes. Molecular analysis has shown that most PcG gene products act together to form multi-protein complexes (Berger, 2006)."
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Argument in Favour of Stem-Cell Research, 2005.
This paper argues that the benefits offered by stem-cell research far outweigh any potential negative effects.
1,019 words (approx. 4.1 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 36.95
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Abstract
In this article, the writer first explains that a stem cell is a human cell that has the ability to divide itself a large number of times when placed in suitable environment, such as a laboratory culture. The writer notes that stem cell research implications are generally related to human health, and thus human stem cells are the focus of this paper. The writer discusses that many people are opposed to stem-cell research because of the need for using embryo cells, which can either come from aborted foetuses or from the umbilical cords of newborn babies. The writer then argues that, despite the concerns about stem-cell research, there are a great number of medical benefits that have already and may still come from stem-cell research and they far outweigh any potential negative effects. The writer argues that stem-cell research should not only be allowed to continue and prosper, but it should also be well funded and placed at a high priority among medical research fields.
From the Paper
" Stem-cell research has allowed researchers to learn more about how cells regenerate themselves, as well as how initial cells at the embryo stage of development later develop into specific cells with specific functions in the body. This research is very useful for informing scientists about potential treatments for debilitating diseases. Researchers working with stem-cells have become fairly certain that continued research with the stem-cells will lead to potential cures or treatments for diseases such as Parkinson's disease, by regenerating muscle and brain cells. The research is also promising in terms of generating treatment options for individuals with multiple sclerosis. One of the most exciting possibilities for stem-cell research lies in the field of developing organs from stem-cells which could meet the human demand for organ transplants and remove the necessity of finding matching donors. Thus, stem-cell research has the potential to save a remarkable number of human lives."
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Stem Cell Research - Global Controversy, 2009.
This paper looks into the issue of stem cell research and discusses whether scientific advancements in medicine outweigh the controversial ethical decisions being made in embryonic stem cell research.
1,847 words (approx. 7.4 pages), 9 sources, APA, $ 59.95
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Abstract
In this article, the writer maintains that the international debate surrounding embryonic stem cell (ESC) research revolves around two contrasting ideas, secular medical thoughts pushing to further research and bioethical views of morality opposing stem cell experimentation. The writer notes that these extreme positions influence global opinions and raise the following question: Do scientific advancements in medicine outweigh the controversial ethical decisions being made in embryonic stem cell research? The answer to this question may directly or indirectly affect all of our lives and play a key role in the future of biological research and healthcare. The writer argues that those who oppose stem cell research seek to preserve the moral and ethical principles in scientific research, yet their arguments are centered on bold, uniformed, faith-based ideas. The primary argument is that human embryos destined for life are being destroyed. In fact modern stem cell research has developed to ensure preservation of this embryonic tissue with various techniques. The writer maintains that this misconception has negatively influenced the general public's attitude toward ESC research and threatens to deny us the opportunity for longer and healthier lives. This paper includes an annotated bibliography.
From the Paper
"These bioethical arguments are a strong and necessary foundation for all controversial scientific research. Although they play an important role into regulations this research, these uninformed and inaccurate ideas of embryo destruction have lead to misunderstandings of stem cell research and will hinder the possibilities of future medical breakthroughs. The majority of people world wide are relatively neutral in regard to stem cell research, yet are strongly influenced by these very contrasting sides. Anti-stem cell campaigns attempt to systematically shun embryonic research and manipulate the general public with biased claims of destruction of life. In actuality, modern techniques with ESC research are carefully regulated to preserve any and all life and allow for all stem cell research to be done with no killing of potentially developing human embryos. Without appropriate knowledge, opponents of ESC research will wrongly disallow a tremendous opportunity in therapeutic advances. The common beliefs by the general public and false claims by pro-life activist incorrectly address the idea that stem cell research harms human embryonic tissue with the potential for life."
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Stem Cell Research, 2004.
A look at the controversy surrounding the issue of stem cell research as well as an argument in favor of advancing the technology.
5,591 words (approx. 22.4 pages), 16 sources, MLA, $ 135.95
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Abstract
This is a position paper arguing that stem cell research should continue because of the promise it holds for people afflicted with certain diseases. The paper presents a brief overview of the arguments presented by those opposed to stem cell research and then counters with arguments in support of the research by first clearing up misconceptions and misunderstandings about stem cell research and by identifying the tremendous promise this medical technology holds for the future. The paper also responds to the two primary arguments against stem cell research, which contend that stem cell research is the same as playing God and that the use of stem cells, even at the earliest stages, equates to destroying human life.
Stem Cell Research Background and History
The Medical Potential of Stem Cell Research
The Debate over Stem Cell Research
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Stem cells are those cells within the human body which are capable of developing into any sort of human cell, whether that be a neuron or a heart-muscle cell or any other specialized cell. They are most often found in the very earliest stages of human embryonic development, for at the blastocyst stage and before the embryo?s body is composed entirely of such non-differentiated cells, which will eventually specialize into various cell types. Scientist today hope that the ability of these cells to be guided into developing as any sort of human tissue may enable them to be used in progressive cures for a host of illnesses, particularly those involving widespread and otherwise irreversible damage to cells which are not thereafter reproductive. (Disease of the brain and spinal cord, such as Alzheimer?s, are a prime example of such illnesses)"
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Stem Cells, 2007.
An overview of stem cells and their potential use to medical science.
1,493 words (approx. 6.0 pages), 6 sources, APA, $ 49.95
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Abstract
This paper examines how scientists believe that stem cell research has the potential to find cures for several previously incurable diseases and how, despite this exciting potential, progress in stem cell research has so far been hampered by serious technical, ethical, and political issues. This paper discusses the types of stem cells and their sources, the potential of stem cell use in medical science, and the issues that are holding back rapid progress in stem cell research.
Outline:
Types of Stem Cell
Sources of Stem Cells
Potential Uses of Stem Cells
Barriers in Stem Cell Research
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Embryonic stem cells are almost always derived from embryos developed from eggs fertilized during fertility treatment in clinics. In the process of in vitro fertilization, eggs removed surgically from a female ovary are fertilized with sperms in a lab for subsequent implant in a woman's uterus. Numerous fertility clinics fuse more than one egg with sperm as a routine in order to try another implant if the first one does not work. Hence, thousands of such "left-over" embryos are stored in liquid nitrogen freezers in the United States and other countries where in vitro clinics exist, which can be used for stem cell research. "
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Stem Cells, 2004.
This paper discusses one of the most controversial topics of popular discourse, stem cell research.
2,055 words (approx. 8.2 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 64.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that stem cells intended for use in human applications are harvested from humans, umbilical cords, and embryos, and are so valuable because they are master cells with the capability to produce or ?become? any other cell type. The author points out that the reason for the discourse surrounding the topic of stem cells is the fact that the most promising source of stem cells is human fetal tissue; thus, many who hold anti-abortion views find this practice to be highly immoral and repugnant. The paper relates that the problem with umbilical cord stem cells is the small amount that can be harvested from any particular cord; adult stem cells, which pale in comparison to the ability of embryonic cells to differentiate into specialized cells, can be used for research.
From the Paper
"Of course, most people know the origin of human life begins with the sperm fertilizing the egg. After this, a single cell is created that holds all of the genetic information needed to form the entire human body. This cell divides and redivides over several days until these cells (known as totipotent, or as having ?total potential?) begin to specialize into the formation known as the ?blastocyst,? which has a hollow sphere of cells, and a cluster of inner cells (the inner cell mass). While the outer cells of this blastocyst proceed to form the placenta, the cells within the inner cell mass go on to form virtually all of the tissues and organs of the human body. It is these cells that are harvested to research stem cells."
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