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Buddhism in China, 2008.
An analysis of the factors that impeded Buddhism's assimilation into China.
1,917 words (approx. 7.7 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 61.95
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Abstract
This paper examines how Buddhism came to China and what the main problems of assimilation associated with its introduction into the country were. More specifically, the paper looks at Buddhism's assimilation into the country taking into account the rulers of the time, the people and their beliefs and the other religions that already existed in China at the time that Buddhism was introduced.
From the Paper
"As a result a series of dictatorships ruled after the Han dynasty while Confucianism was discredited by the collapse of the old order. Confucianism failed to save the Empire from shattering into the pieces. Its prescribed relationship between the ruler and the subjects proved to be unsuccessful. It did not protect the gentry and scholars whose lives were dependent on the old monarchy. Additionally, as it was the official state doctrine of the Han dynasty it was strongly connected with the old regime that failed and new dynasties could not easily be persuaded to accept it as their doctrine. The elite was however, not too happy with Taoism either, and although present, Buddhism was "still in the process of being translated and adapted" (Wright, 7). This was because until the 4th century the Han Emperors permitted only foreigners to build monasteries and enter the new religion (Ch'en, 45) and because the early interpretation of the religion were closely tied with Taoism and done using Taoism terminology."
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Buddhism in China, 2008.
An analysis of how and when Buddhism came to China and the obstacles it faced there from the state and Confucian opponents.
1,713 words (approx. 6.9 pages), 8 sources, APA, $ 55.95
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Abstract
This paper looks at how Buddhism came to China and what main problems pertaining to assimilation greeted it once it arrived. Specifically, the paper analyzes when exactly Buddhism made its appearance, what factors in China made it possible for it to establish a toe-hold and what arguments were leveled against it by Confucian opponents. The paper also discusses the role of the Northwestern Purists, as well as what obstacles the state offered.
From the Paper
"Yet, there is still confusion among scholars as to when exactly Buddhism began to eclipse (or at least rival) Confucianism in ancient China. Lewis Hodous seems to place Buddhism's gradual rise during the Han dynasty that extended from the third century BC to the third century AD - which appears to accord with the work of Hawkins insofar as the latter draws the conclusion that 300 AD was right about when Buddhism became pervasive and prominent in China. However, Xinzhong Yao (2000) argues that Buddhism did not really begin to flourish until roughly the end of the fourth century AD - a later date by nearly a century. Ultimately, the imprecision of the dates (and they all do fall within the same general timeframe) can be attributed to the relative scarcity of textual sources and, presumably, to different scholarly preoccupation and emphases. The key point, in any case, is that Buddhism came about because Confucianism's own failings gave it cultural space in which to carve out a niche."
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Buddhism's Entry into China, 2002.
A look at the development and spread of Buddhism into China.
1,320 words (approx. 5.3 pages), 1 source, MLA, $ 44.95
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Abstract
This paper deals with the various reasons that Buddhism entered China. It talks about the help the religion received from the government and the hindrances it had to overcome to become the major force it is today in China.
From the Paper
"For most of history, China has been described as an extremely unified country, in both culture and political aspects. This was furthered by the fact that China was isolated and insulated from "alien" thoughts and beliefs, even though there was minimal contact by way of the Silk Road and from India. When Buddhism made its appearance in China, it brought with it a view of the outside world that was foreign, inviting, and challenging. While bringing new ideas, it at the same time brought up cultural, social, political, and religious challenges that had to be addressed and changed to fit Chinese life in order to be accepted."
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Buddhism in China and Japan., 2002.
A comparison of the effects of the Buddhist religion in Japan and China.
650 words (approx. 2.6 pages), 3 sources, $ 26.95
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Abstract
This paper will argue that the effect of the introduction of Buddhism in China and Japan was completely different, given the distinct political and cultural contexts of the two countries.
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Buddhism, 2007.
This paper discusses the history and influences of Buddhism in China.
1,965 words (approx. 7.9 pages), 3 sources, APA, $ 62.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that the study of Buddhism is crucial to the understanding of Chinese history because, for almost two thousand years, Buddhism has influenced Chinese culture, politics, philosophy and literature. The author points out that the spread of Buddhism was unique for China for the reason that, when it was introduced, China was already a very old civilization with very sacred traditions and was felt by the population to be the only truly civilized society in the world. The paper relates that the most important reason for the success of Buddhism in China is Buddhism's willingness to recognize and take in certain elements of preexisting religions.
From the Paper
"It is hard to tell exactly how Buddhism made its way into China, but it is assumed though, that this first contact was with Buddhist icons worshiped by Central Asians coming into China. Back then, the Chinese accepted the Buddha into their lives as a religious figure because of their own mythical Yellow Emperor and the philosopher Loazi, who was believed to have reached the Buddhist level of immortality. However, the turning point for Chinese Buddhism was when the original texts started being translated into Chinese."
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Taixu and Modern Chinese Zen Buddhism, 2008.
An analysis of the efforts of Buddhist activist monk, Taixu, to improve Buddhism and life in China.
1,622 words (approx. 6.5 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 52.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the life and influence of the Buddhist activist monk, Taixu. It describes how he was profoundly affected by China's experience of World War I and the suffering of ordinary Chinese and what he did to improve the situation. In particular, the paper discusses how Taixu improved Buddhism, in order to improve the life of ordinary people in China.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Improving Buddhism, Improving China
Concluding Remarks
From the Paper
"What was observed as a New Buddhist Movement in China after the Communist Revolution of 1949 was still remarked upon by observers and associated with Taixu after his death. (See Callahan 1952) Taixu had hoped for a Buddhism that was national, transnational, public and populist, as needed well educated and otherwise prepared monks and outlets suiting lay people who wanted to create an improved society. Taixu could not imagine what lay in store for the Chinese in the decades after his death. In 1950, his disciplines saw his writings published, and then all things of the kind were steadily discouraged. In 1989, there was renewed interest in Taixu and his followers, in a rather glorified rendition of Taixu, despite his failure to ever gain leadership of the Chinese Buddhist Association. The regime backed several volumes of his works that were reprinted in various languages, as though the People's Republic of China had never opposed its spiritual authorities, the competing network in the Buddhist establishment."
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Chinese Buddhism, 2005.
This paper discusses the degree to which Chinese social political and cultural forces have shaped Buddhism in China.
2,250 words (approx. 9.0 pages), 2 sources, $ 89.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the differences between Chinese Buddhism and the Buddhism of any other Asian country. The author stresses that politics has played a role in determining the shape of Chinese Buddhism. The paper relates that the existence of Buddhist monasteries in China under the T'ang and Ming dynasties owes much to the political power of Buddhism in Chinese history.
From the Paper
"Buddhism in Chinese History: The Example of Politics and Religious Conflict under the T'ang and Ming Dynasties Introduction Any study of Chinese Buddhism must address the degree to which Chinese social, political and cultural forces have shaped Buddhism in China in ways that make it different from the Buddhism of any other Asian country. In researching for this paper, I was surprised by the degree to which politics has played a role in determining the shape of Chinese Buddhism. Even the existence of Buddhist monasteries in China, as will be seen, owes much to the political power of Buddhism in Chinese history."
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Buddhism during the Period of Division, 2003.
This essay is based on the rise and appeal of Buddhism in China while Confucianism and Daoism already existed during the Period of Division (220 - 589 A.D).
2,001 words (approx. 8.0 pages), 2 sources, MLA, $ 63.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the appeal of Buddhism in the historical context of the Period of Division. It explains that Buddhism's rise was answering the needs and desires of both the people and the rulers, especially foreign rulers, in a period of instability and in competition with the past dominated by Confucianism and organized Daoism. There is also the dialectic between its new content as a foreign religion and its sinicization, as both can account for its success in China.
From the Paper
"The Period of Division in Chinese history spreads between 220 and 589 A.D. The period is marked by wars, successions of small kingdoms, and great political instability and misery for the people. It is also the period of nomadic invasions. Buddhism exerted a great appeal to the Chinese during this period, became dominant at least in the north, and firmly established itself alongside Confucianism and Daoism as the main religions or schools of thought in China. What are the reasons behind its popularity during this period?"
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'Imperium in Imperio': Buddhism from Sui to Tang, 2007.
A summary of the growth and effects of Buddhism in China.
2,182 words (approx. 8.7 pages), 8 sources, MLA, $ 68.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the acceptance of Buddhism into the Chinese culture and describes its growth and effects on the Chinese people. The author shows how Buddhism reached levels of tremendous popularity among all social classes and was allowed to become too powerful in the eyes of the state; resulting in the political dissolution of the religion and a large amount of its infrastructure.
From the Paper
"While the acceptance of Buddhism into Chinese culture was a gradual process, it eventually came to be embraced by the Sui and early Tang dynastic rulers as a tool which would help unify an empire which had previously been divided into North and South political entities. Buddhism reached levels of tremendous popularity among all social classes of Chinese civilization through its localized hierarchical structure and its ability to provide answers for questions which were not answered by the fundamental Chinese religions of the time, Taoism and Confucianism. Through its economic and political influence Buddhism became so powerful the state was required to intervene and dissolve the monastic structure for the greater good of China. This paper will identify the primary reasons for the rapid rise of Buddhism during the Sui and Tang dynasties, interpret what made Buddhism so successful economically at its height, and finally, discuss the fall of the religion during the Tang dynasty. This examination will prove three specific concepts related to Buddhism's rise and fall between the Sui and Tang. First, that Buddhism was a convenient tool which was methodically used by the Sui to take advantage of the fragmented social condition of the country and politically unite China. Second, how the rapid growth and subsequent dominance of the religion was a result of economic and political autonomy afforded by the poor management of religion by the early Tang dynasty. Finally, it will be proven that this autonomy allowed Buddhism to become too powerful in the eyes of the state; resulting in the political dissolution of the religion and a large amount of its infrastructure.
"While there is an abundance of evidence supporting the fact that Buddhism had been in existence in China as early as 130AD, there are no records of its impact on Chinese life and thought until near the end of the third century . It was not until the economic, social and political disunion of the once dominant Han Empire that Buddhism was able to spread throughout the Chinese world. Through the time of the Northern and Southern Dynasties the religion gained popularity among the peasantry as well as elite members of society despite periodic suppressions from emperors who were not in favour of the relatively new faith. When the Sui dynasty was proclaimed in North China during 581, the emperor Wen di made immediate plans to conquer the South and command a unified China. It was not until 589 that his armies defeated the Chen forces at Nanking to form a politically unified China. Indeed, many problems lay ahead in truly unifying the new empire as more than one hundred and fifty years of social, political and religious practices had been separately cultivating between North and South. The practice of Buddhism, however, was an ideology shared by both North and South and one which crossed class divisions, enjoying popularity among peasantry and elites alike. As stated by Wright, "Buddhism would commend itself to the reunifying dynasty of Sui, and to its successor, the great Tang, as an instrument for knitting together two cultures", in referring to North and South differences. Indeed, part of the appeal to the Sui emperor must have been the universality of Buddhism; a concept which did not place foreigners at a disadvantage when compared to native Chinese, as Confucianism did. Recognizing this as a valuable political tool which could be used to unify his new empire, Wen di quickly converted to Buddhism soon after his conquest and subsequently made the declaration of himself as a Cakravartin King, a monarch who would defend the Buddhist faith with military force. As devout supporters of Buddhism as the Sui and early Tang were, they were careful to restrict some of the functions of the church, lest the religion gain too much power (referred to by Wright as "imperium in imperio", a principle defined as "an organization operating against the organization within which they seemingly reside") . Early Tang tendencies directed toward Buddhism, such as regulating the issuance of land titles, sales of ordination certificates, the compilation of a Buddhist canon, and utilization of a clerical examination system for prospective monks, effectively bureaucratized the religion within Tang rule. This careful administration allowed the state to remain the primary source of political and social order while still allowing the religion to flourish in accordance with the political mandates of the time. Unfortunately, this system proved unsustainable and the Tang emperors' devout patronage to the religion would create what Fairbank refers to as an "imperial Buddhism" whereby the monasteries began to assume the role of substantial landowners wielding increased social and economic influence, threatening those of the state."
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The History of Printing in Ancient China, 2008.
An analysis of the history of printing during the Tang Dynasty and the Sung Dynasty in Ancient China and its relationship to Buddhism and Confucianism.
1,726 words (approx. 6.9 pages), 9 sources, APA, $ 55.95
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Abstract
This paper shows the important role that Buddhism and Confucianism played in the development of printing. It then shows the important role that printing played in the development and history of these two religions. The paper particularly discusses the history of printing from the time of the Tang Dynasty and the Sung Dynasty in Ancient China.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
The Very Beginning of Printing - Tang Dynasty (618-906)
Reasons why Printing was Invented - Buddhism in the Tang Dynasty
The Diamond Sutra
Buddhist and Confucian Books Printed in the Sung Dynasty
Importance of Printing to Buddhism and Confucianism
Commercial Uses for Printing
Conclusion
From the Paper
"As has been shown above, the Ancient Chinese were the first to develop printing, during the Tang Dynasty and the Sung Dynasty. The main reason they did this was because printing was needed to produce and distribute more religious texts. In particular, Buddhist texts were the reason why early printing was developed. Printing then made possible the production of the first complete Buddhist canon. So, it must have been very important in spreading and developing Buddhism in China. Although printing was soon used for commercial applications, it continued to be important for religious literature. During the Sung Dynasty, it was used to produce Confucian books. Thanks to the invention of printing, a fair amount of early religious works still exist today."
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Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, 2003.
A comparison of the main components of the three Chinese religions.
1,352 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 8 sources, MLA, $ 45.95
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Abstract
This paper explains the roots of these three religions. It shows how each has held a predominant position at some point in Chinese history, and each has had its followers. Taoism and Confucianism were the primary religions in China's early history. Buddhism later spread to China and established a large following. While Taoism and Confucianism are largely philosophical, ethics-based, codes of living, Buddhism has a deeper spiritual aspect. Buddhism's spiritual ties, along with its relative simplicity of approach and practice and its similarities to Taoism and Confucianism, allowed the religion to gain a strong foothold in China.
From the Paper
"Confucianism has been mainstream Chinese philosophy for over two thousand years. It was a primary religion for the Chinese people. Many hold that Confucianism is an ethical system that is grounded in humanism. The teachings of Confucius form the basis of Confucianism. The heart of the teaching is found in the "Four Books". These works are the Analects of Confucius, Mencius, and two extracts from the ritual collections: "The Doctrine of the Mean" and "The Great Learning".1 They mainly focus on individual morality and ethics, and the proper exercise of political power by the rulers. It is not like many other deeply spiritual religions such as Islam or Christianity. Confucianism has more philosophical roots. It concentrated on the moral and political conformity. It is primarily an ethical system to which rituals added at important times in one's life."
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Cha'an Buddhism, 2005.
This paper discusses the development, practice, and ideas of Cha'an Buddhism, also known as Zen Buddhism.
3,375 words (approx. 13.5 pages), 10 sources, $ 133.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that Cha'an Buddhism, also known as Zen Buddhism, emerged in China in the sixth century after Buddhism had been brought to China from India. The author points out that Zen Buddhism later was transferred to Japan and eventually reached America and other parts of the world. The paper relates that Cha'an Buddhism is only one of several major schools of Buddhist thought.
From the Paper
"One of the prevailing schools of Buddhist thought in China has been known as Cha'an Buddhism, or Chan Buddhism, and is known in America as Zen Buddhism. While Zen Buddhism was adapted from the Chinese, it also became common in Japan. Zen means the discipline of enlightenment. Much remains uncertain about the early history of Chan Buddhism, but the general development of the school is understood, as is the way it spread through China and into other regions. A School of Buddhism Chan Buddhism is the religion of jiyu, or "self-reliance," and jizai, or "self-being" (Suzuki 6). "
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Zen Buddhism, 2007.
This paper discuses Zen Buddhism as a form of Mahayana Buddhism, which is a tradition that has had much appeal to some westerners in the last generations.
3,015 words (approx. 12.1 pages), 8 sources, APA, $ 88.95
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Abstract
This paper relates the history of Zen Buddhism, explaining that it originated in China and later spread throughout much of Vietnam, Korea and Indo-China. The author points out that Zen Buddhism demands a great deal of the follower but its gift is a pure simplicity that brings the transformation of the person and all awareness. The paper relates that many North Americans, including Heidegger, Erich Fromm, and Aldous Huxley, value the 'in the moment' focus of Zen Buddhism as a solution to fast-paced societies that cause many people to feel overwhelmed by stress. The paper relates that the aesthetics of Zen appeal to Westerners as seen in sand or stone 'Japanese' gardens that reflect the influence of Zen Buddhism.
Table of Content:
Introduction
The Buddha's Emissaries
Zen's Appeal and its Spread
Zen's Appeal to Non-Asian Persons
Concluding Discussion
From the Paper
"Those leaving India for East Asia in the 6th century AD believed they carried a simple but very powerful message. The smile of the Buddha was a symbol that had spread through India by those known as the 28 Patriarchs, the symbol brought to China by Bodhidharma and later taken on to Japan. Part of the appeal of Zen Buddhism perhaps was its accessibility in societies where only the elite, indeed, only the philosophical or priestly classes, were literate. Zen's emphasis on personal consciousness, as aided by a learned teacher, appealed to people who were given simple - but extremely difficult meditative exercises to master."
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Theravada Buddhism, 2007.
A comparison of Theravada Buddhism with Zen and Mahayana Buddhism.
1,743 words (approx. 7.0 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 56.95
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Abstract
This paper reviews the precepts and philosophies put forward by those interpreting Theravada Buddhism and discusses why it has become the popular form of Buddhism practiced by Westerners. It then compares Theravada Buddhism with Zen and Mahayana Buddhism (and Shin Buddhism, a form of Mahayana), discussing how they relate differently to the precepts of Buddhism.
From the Paper
"And in fact, monks in America in Theravadan communities now do shake hands with women, and there is innovation and change on the way, Numrich writes. And in some cases, monks are married and living normal lives, because as Numrich points out on page 151, monasticism "is irrelevant to the practice of Buddhism" in America.
"The fact of normal family life for monks is certainly a good reason for Americans practicing Buddhism to heartily relate to the faith, in particular, given the widespread sexual molestation scandals that have rocked the Roman Catholic Church in America over the past few years. If celibacy appears to create carnal desires that result in little boys being sexually abused by clerics, then certainly a more normal life for monks would seem to be advisable, as Theravada Buddhism takes hold in the West."
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The History of Tantric Buddhism, 2006.
A general history of Buddhism with particular focus on Tantric Buddhism.
3,866 words (approx. 15.5 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 105.95
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Abstract
This paper begins with a general discussion of the history of Buddhism in and then goes on to discuss the specific history of Tantric Buddhism. The paper briefly discusses the life of Buddha and how, after his death, several different sects within Buddhism arose, including Tantric Buddhism. The paper explains that Tantric (esoteric) Buddhism arose in the seventh and eighth centuries in India and the Himalayas and still survives today, in the twentieth century, as a living tradition of the Buddhism found in Nepal and Tibet. The paper also discusses early Tantric scriptures, Tantric practices and beliefs and its spread to other countries. In addition, the paper examines Western acceptance of Tantric Buddhism and the modern expression of this ancient religion and philosophy.
From the Paper
"The historical Buddha spoke a language of Sanskrit, the classical language of ancient India, although it is not clear which specific dialect he spoke. Sanskrit was a formal literary language used almost exclusively by the elite of society. There is an extensive record of the Buddha's teaching that survives today; it is written in an ancient Indian dialect known as Pali. This record forms the scriptural basis for one of two forms of contemporary Buddhism, the Theravada; this is practiced in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia."
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