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A Glimpse into Neanderthal Culture, 2004.
A look into the development of Neanderthal culture by examining their language use, tool usage, and other daily functions.
4,875 words (approx. 19.5 pages), 14 sources, MLA, $ 124.95
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Abstract
When people think of the Humanoid genus, Homo Sapiens neanderthalensis (HSN), they picture a very primitive creature, simplistic in nature, with few social complexities.This paper explains that, upon close examination of several Neanderthan archaeological sites, one will find the Neanderthal man had all of the necessary elements for the beginning of the formation of modern society. It was once thought that these elements were only present in Neanderthan culture after contact with Home Sapiens sapiens (HSS). However, evidence now exists that suggests that Neanderthals were already well on their way to developing a formal, but rudimentary, culture well before contact with HSS. This research examines these findings using evidence gathered from the Petralona, Larga Velhol, St. Cesaire, Shanidar, and Arago sites. This research supports the thesis that Neanderthals had the beginnings of an advanced society prior to contact with Home Sapiens sapiens and that the disappearance of the Neanderthan culture was a result of the intermixing of HSN species with HSS species.
From the Paper
"The use of language by Neanderthal man has been as issue of contention since the first discoveries of the culture. Some archeologists paint the picture of Neanderthal man as a highly advanced mammal with little or no language capability. However, this is inconsistent with other findings. One of the keys to deciphering these arguments is to be careful in the definition of language. There are many aspects to the term "language". One might consider language to consist of a series of non-verbal cues and sounds that to modern man would not seem like a language, as we know it today. The silver-backed gorilla and chimpanzee have been found to have an advanced language of this type and have even been able to learn out language by way of sign language in some cases. Neanderthal man was more advanced in other areas than these other primates in tool usage and manufacture, and other areas of advanced culture. It would stand to reason then, that they had a language, at least as advanced as that of the more advanced primates of today. Perhaps the language of today's advanced primates is more complex than we are aware and it is simply a case of us not being able to understand or to pick up on subtleties known only to native speakers. Let us now examine the evidence."
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Ptolemaic Egypt/Hellenistic European Period, 2002.
Discussion of the the rise and fall of Ptolemaic Egypt.
4,215 words (approx. 16.9 pages), 7 sources, MLA, $ 112.95
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Abstract
This paper takes a chronological look at the Hellenistic kingdom of Ptolemaic Egypt from its founding to its eventual end and integration into the Roman Empire under Caesar. It also looks at the succession of Ptolemaic rulers, the Ptolemy governments, and the infrastructure and economy established under these rulers. Included are descriptions of the significant aspects of the culture and religion of that era. The paper also covers the fall of the Ptolemaic empire and the events and characters in history that contributed to the fall.
From the Paper
"After entering Egypt with no resistance, Alexander the Great stayed in Egypt about six months. (Platt and Ashwani 1985) From there he marched east into Asia and onto the plains of Indus, (modern day India). Before departing for points east Alexander appointed a nobleman from Macedonia satrap, (governor), of Egypt. His name was Ptolemy. In 306 B.C. having been part of ongoing civil wars with the other generals from Alexander's campaigns, Ptolemy declared himself king, and later god-king, of Egypt. Thus began the Hellenistic kingdom of Ptolemaic Egypt."
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Artifactual Communication, 2002.
Explores the history and origins of artifactual communication.
762 words (approx. 3.0 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 27.95
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Abstract
This paper briefly discusses the origins of artifactual communication in Mesopotamia about 10,000 years ago. It explains how researchers believe that this form of Mesopotamian communication eventually evolved into the alphabet and how the artifactual media were used to communicate a message. Also noted are the different types of artifactual communications that have been used over time and which are still in use.
From the Paper
"The Persian Gulf nation of Iraq may be widely known today for war, for oil, and for Sadaam Hussein's alleged weapons of mass destruction. But very few people likely know that in fact, Iraq played a pivotal historical role in the development of non-verbal, or artifactual, methods of communication. About 10,000 years before the 2003 U.S. attack on Hussein's regime, the very first human-made artifactual communication system was created in what was then Mesopotamia - and today is Iraq. According to the University of Texas Professor of Art & History, Denise Schmandt-Besserat, the Mesopotamian people developed a system of clay tokens - used for accounting purposes - around 8,000 B.C. These clay tokens were utilized for about 5,000 years, and though they had little to do with speech, it is believed the original alphabet evolved from the tokens."
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Cut Marks on Human Bone, 2002.
This paper presents the debate about the archaeological meaning of cut marks found on human bone.
4,941 words (approx. 19.8 pages), 33 sources, MLA, $ 125.95
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Abstract
This paper stresses that, even when speaking of the natural processes, it has been difficult to determine whether alterations to bone were by burning and heating, which would indicate cannibalism for nutrition, or by natural processes. The author points out that whether homo sapiens practiced cannibalism, the American Association for the Advancement of Science has come in on the side of the cannibalism debate, at least as far as our ancestor Neanderthals go. The paper indicates that the research on cut marks on bone is divided into prehistoric sites, early historic sites, and sites where there is a generally reliable linguistic record.
Table of Contents
The Beginning of the Debate
The Debate Filters Out of Academia
International Debate
Pro-cannibalism Evidence
The Oldest Part of the Debate Continues Under Investigation
Violence and Death, Without Cannibalism
Modern Cannibalism
Modern Deaths and Cut Marks
From the Paper
"While the controversy about cannibalism vis a vis cut marks originated in Asian sites, it has become a hot topic vis a vis U.S. sites in the southwest as well, and not only concerning the Anasazi. Billman, Lambert and Leonard grappled with it in excavating 5MT10010, a small early Pueblo III habitation site in southwestern Colorado. They examined battered, broken bones from seven individuals in two adjacent pithouses there, including mixed and incomplete remains of four adults and an adolescent, and the remains of two subadults."
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Ancient Civilizations, 2002.
A comparison of different ancient civilizations that grew along various rivers.
1,854 words (approx. 7.4 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 59.95
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Abstract
This paper explains how all ancient civilizations relied on flowing water to exist. The Egyptians relied on the Nile. To the east, the Euphrates and the Tigris created Mesopotamia. The Indus River nourished ancient Indian civilization, and the great Yellow River (Huang Ho) made the birth of Chinese civilization possible.
From the Paper
"Thus all ancient culture hearths could depend on a steady source of water, which also brought nutrients to the soil and fish as a source of food. Except for the violent Tigris and Yellow, the rivers also served as an easy means of communication. Easy communications facilitated the exchange of ideas and goods while breaking down the culturally retarding barriers of isolation. The size and fertility of the broad valleys made possible a vast increase in the land that could be cultivated, which in turn meant a vast increase in wealth and population; necessary ingredients to the development of large sophisticated social structures. Although great rivers were a common feature of these pioneering civilizations, soil and climate differed, and these differences left a significant imprint on human development. Different climates meant that the rivers nurtured different crops and required different methods of agriculture. Geography and the means by which people turned it to their uses influenced the ways in which societies evolved."
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Ancient Michigan, 2002.
Discusses the mammals who lived in the ancient Michigan basin area.
2,885 words (approx. 11.5 pages), 12 sources, APA, $ 85.95
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Abstract
Twenty thousand years ago, mile-thick glacial ice sheets that extended from Canada to the Ohio River covered Michigan and most of northern North America. It took more than 12,000 years for the ice to melt, leaving Michigan a glacially scarred landscape with the Great Lakes. This paper focuses on the ancient Michigan basin area and presents a brief geological history of the area. It discusses how the mammals that lived during the Ice Age, such as mammoths, horses, camels and saber-toothed tigers adapted to their environment over the years, with some eventually becoming extinct.
From the Paper
"The sperm whale represents a prehistoric carnivore that still exists today and Michigan boasts one of the largest fossils from a prehistoric sperm whale. Even during prehistoric times, the Great Lakes as we know them now were larger and connected to the Atlantic Ocean. This may be one reason why the sperm whale survived. Today, they are found far from land in very deep waters, which probably had been there environment during the Pleistocene Epoch."
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Toltec Society, 2002.
Explores this South American militaristic group of people.
1,088 words (approx. 4.4 pages), 0 sources, MLA, $ 37.95
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Abstract
Historians presume that the Toltecs are actually the refugees from the "Teotihuan culture" which fell apart during the 700 A.D. They were among the first purely 'Militaristic" cultures and commanded the neighboring states by their military power. The paper shows that the empire expanded rapidly and the Toltecs began to take control of lands which were controlled by the Mayans. The Toltec Empire extended into what is present day Mexico, Guatemala and the Pacific coastal area of Chiopas. The paper describes how the Toltec Empire, which flourished from the 8th century, began to fall during the Twelfth century when Mayans, Chimetics and the other tribal powers finally subordinated them. Since there is no written record our primary source of information about the mesoamerican society is from the archaeological evidence discoveries. This paper examines the Toltec Society in detail.
From the Paper
"The era of the Toltecs is perceived by historians as the change from a priesthood society to that of a Militaristic one. Toltec society was a militaristic one that used its army to subjugate and occupy the neighboring lands. This is all the more evident form their architecture. Toltecs had great regard for their warriors and enshrined many of their brave warriors in their temples. There is an air of somber about their architectures. The Toltec's carved out images of serpents, eagles, jaguars and other forms of threatening images. They also had images of their god Tezcatlipoca, "Smoking Mirrors" carved out in most of their architectures. Toltec's used Limestone as the main material for their constructions. A characteristic feature of the Toltec architecture, other than the various carvings of snake, jaguars, eagle etc, is their flat roofed constructions. Unlike the roman civilizations wherein we see lot of dooms the Toltecs predominantly designed flat roofed buildings. [Ferguson,]"
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King Herod, the Great, 2002.
An in-depth paper of the life and achievements of King Herod the Great.
5,971 words (approx. 23.9 pages), 11 sources, MLA, $ 142.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the rule of King Herod over Idumea, Galilee, Judea, Batanea, Samaria and Peraea. It discusses why his relationship with the Jews was so tense and reasons for their hatred of him. It looks at the culture of the time and how the rule of Herod influenced cultural norms of society.
Introduction
Herod's Regime from 37-25 B.C
The Pharisees
The Ruling Class
The Hasmonean Family
Cleopatra
Herod and Octavius
The Death of Mariamne
The Death of the Last of the Hasmoneans
Herod Regime from 25-14 B.C.
Herod as Master Builder
Jerusalem
Masada
The Herodion
Jericho
Caesarea
Herod's Household Affairs
Augustus and Herod
Pleasing the Subjects
Marriage of Herod's Sons
Herod's Rule from 14-4 B.C
Matrimonial Issues
The Conspiracy for Succession
Foreign Disturbances
Trial of Alexander and Aristobulus
Antipater's Conspiracy and Failure
A New Will
The Divine Indications of Jesus' Birth
The Rabbi Rebels
Imprisonment of all Jew Noblemen
Antipater's Execution and Change of Will
Death and Deliverance
Herod's Religious Implications on Judaism & Christianity
From the Paper
"Quite a variety of members belonging to the royal dynasty had their names Herod being originated in Edom or Idumea after John Hyrcanus in 125 B.C was obligated to adopt the Jewish religion (1). The Herod family ruled in Palestine as vassals of the Romans. Followed by Maccabees, the history of this dynasty mainly relates to the political history of Palestine during this whole era (1). Romans in 40 B.C made Herod I the Great, son of Antipater the king who managed to keep hold of his throne even during the times of changes in the government at Rome (1). Herod's kingdom included Idumea, Galilee, Judea, Batanea, Samaria and Peraea, which was more or less the same size as the kingdom of David and Solomon (1). Though Herod had outstanding leadership skills, yet he was greatly detested by the Jews. One of the reasons for disliking him was his attitude toward the Maccabean dynasty to which he was linked in terms of marriage, while his impudence and brutality, infuriated Jews more (1)."
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Archeology, 2002.
An examination of the social dangers implicit in archaeological discovery.
2,050 words (approx. 8.2 pages), 1 source, APA, $ 64.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses how the use of archaeological and historical data as a tool of the state has a long and illustrious history and how in many cases it seems possible that the archaeological record exists partly in an attempt to influence the nationalism of the future. It examines the different ways in which archeology interacts with national/political perception such as a tool of the state either in substantiating claims to land or power, or in promoting a specific style of government or nationalism in general. It analyzes how archeology is dependent upon and biased by its surroundings in many ways and how at the same time, modern culture depends upon archeology to be its memory of the past and to provide it with the assumptions and biases it needs to function.
From the Paper
"Because of the power of the past to reinvent the future, some states may resort to forcing the past into the molds they desire. Consider, for a minute, our previous two imaginary nations. What if it turned out that Nation A had in fact completely and intentionally misinterpreted the ruins in those hills, and had in fact planted occasional pieces of data? What if the ruins actually existed to a third, expired race of people? Nation A's use of these ruins to create the foundation for war, despite all contrary evidence, would make them a prime example of the second sort of relationship that may exist between archeology and the nation/society. Sometimes, archeology is just a puppet of the state. For example, there is a great deal of evidence that archeological departments in Nazi Germany creatively "made up" a great deal of evidence supporting the supremacy of the Aryan race. By giving themselves (illusory) archeological evidence of the past greatness of their militant people, they invoked a new martial spirit among their modern community. Yet the Nazis have not been alone in such revisionism."
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Rise and Fall of an Empire, 2002.
Explains the rise and decline of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India and China in the period of 3500 BCE to 1000 BCE.
723 words (approx. 2.9 pages), 2 sources, APA, $ 25.95
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Abstract
Just as historians wonder why a society comes to dominate a particular region of the world, they also wonder why that same society declines in its influence and power. The paper shows that over the course of the historical period from 3500 to 1000 BCE, the kingdoms of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India and China, all of which had exerted the most notable influence upon the Middle Eastern and Asian continents that these nations dominated, began to experience a period of decline. The paper shows that although the agricultural and political policies and influences of these societies continued to be felt by further historical generations, the societies themselves fell into disrepair.
From the Paper
"The level of absolute power wielded by such monarchs resulted in a society that was entirely dependent upon inequality for its justification, a system that still remains to a certain extent in notions of 'caste' in India. (McKay et. al 62-67) This authority, to administrate its power, relied upon systems of administration and class stratification that were as complex as they eventually proved to be fragile. At first, this was beneficial to the populace to some extent. Many archaeologists have theorized that these states emerged as powerful as they did, as early as they did in the course of human history, because they could organize the existing food supplies increased through hierarchical agricultural networks of human beings. The physical structure of ancient Egypt's system of irrigation remains impressive today, although it was based upon enslaved labor. (McKay et. al 34)"
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Hydraulic Societies, 2002.
Examining the early Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and India societies.
1,248 words (approx. 5.0 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 42.95
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Abstract
This analytical research paper examines the rise of four "hydraulic societies",so called due to their dependency on water, of Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and India that existed in the time period 3500 BC to 1000 BC. Furthermore, the paper highlights the history as well as the decline of the aforementioned civilizations popularly referred to as hydraulic societies.
From the Paper
"Many academics and various experts in the related field are of the view that the needs for irrigation of crops gave birth to some of the earliest civilizations of Asia. However, an American historian of the 1950's by the name of Karl Wittfogel vehemently argued about the reasons for the emergence of these early civilizations that he called "hydraulic societies" (Pearce) in order to illustrate "the many complex hierarchical societies that developed across Asia" (Pearce). This American historian was of the view that the four hydraulic societies of Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and India, which lived along riversides, came into existence "specifically in order to organize the large labor forces necessary to create and maintain the water-supply systems for irrigated agriculture" (Pearce). Thus, where crops and land irrigation was the sole reason believed by the scholarly figures, there was a confrontation on the exact cause of emergence of the hydraulic civilizations that whether it was due to the labor-intensive tasks or due to the need to grow crops through the irrigation means or the need to organize people as well as the resources (Pearce)."
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The Neanderthals, 2002.
An overview of the theories related to this early race of humans which originated in Europe.
1,580 words (approx. 6.3 pages), 8 sources, MLA, $ 51.95
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Abstract
The Neanderthals were an early race who lived in Europe and probably West Asia between 120,000 and 35,000 years ago. This paper looks at the fossils found from 1856 who tell the story of the Neanderthal's travelling through Europe and Asia. It looks at the three conflicting theories between scientists who disagree over their interpretations about what constitutes the characteristics of a Neanderthal. Other aspects discussed in the paper include anatomical characteristics, tool-making techniques and cultural rituals.
From the Paper
"Scientists who examined the fossils disagreed in their interpretations. German anatomist Rudolf Virchow was the first to study these fossils and believed that they decidedly belonged to a homo sapiens with rickets, a physical condition that results from the lack of Vitamin D (Browning). Virchow also suggested that the Neanderthal man's flattened head was the outcome of powerful blows. As more fossils got discovered, the belief that they belonged to a sub-human species developed.
After many skeletons were dug out, French paleontologist Marcellin Boule advanced the theory that Neanderthals could not fully extend their legs, walked in stooped posture, and with their heads thrust forward. The concept was popularly accepted for approximately 50 years, after which Boule's theory was appraised by researchers. They concluded that Neanderthals did not walk in stoop posture but rather upright but stooped because of arthritis (Browning). Some scientists considered them a subspecies of homo sapiens, to which contemporary human beings belong today. This assumption was based on the differences in anatomy between the Neanderthals and the homo sapiens."
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Solomon, David and Israel, 2002.
Examines the reigns of Solomon and David in ancient Israel.
3,315 words (approx. 13.3 pages), 7 sources, MLA, $ 94.95
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Abstract
Looks at the differing historical assessments of the nature of Israel during the rules of David and Solomon and whether Israel could be classified as a kingdom during those times. Examines both the traditional view, where David and Solomon are considered central to Jewish history, and the position taken by a group called the "new archaeologists" who claim that David and Solomon were, at best, small-time leaders of local tribes.
From the Paper
"Such an analysis is more a matter of commentary on the text than any sort of historical analysis because until recently there was little clear evidence that David or Solomon even existed, and many scholars have claimed that they did not. Under the traditional view, David and Solomon are considered central to Jewish history. A group known as the "new archaeologists" claim that David and Solomon were at best small-time leaders of local tribes, making the greatness of Israel under their leadership is a matter of exaggeration. For instance, they doubt that Solomon ever built the great temple as described in the Bible. These scholars are also known as the "minimalists" because they believe in a minimal interpretation of the evidence available about ancient Israel."
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Sculpture and Form in Ancient Egypt and Greece, 2002.
Examines how ancient Egypt influenced early Greek culture, as can be seen through works of art from the time period.
1,462 words (approx. 5.8 pages), 7 sources, APA, $ 48.95
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Abstract
Ancient Egypt had a significant impact on early Greek culture, as can be evidenced by enduring artifacts. Egyptian sculptures, primarily created for the pharaohs or high-ranking officials and essentially religious in function, significantly influenced the form and style of statues of the early Archaic Age. Poses were rather rigid and very conventional and facial expression was confined to the typical Egyptian half smile. The paper shows that over time, Greek artisans began developing their own approach. By the late Archaic and definitely prior to the beginning of the Golden Age or Classical Period, artwork started to reflect evolving philosophies and ideals and to celebrate the human figure. Sculptures portrayed more elaborate features and less static stances.
From the Paper
"The statues also represented the society's hierarchy. At the bottom of the rung were the slaves, tomb builders and farmers. Further up came the craftspeople, educators, doctors, noblemen and priests. The pharaoh filled more than the role of king and ruler. He was considered a god on earth. (Grant 1990, 23) Egyptians used the size of their statues to illustrate the social order. The pharaoh was larger then life size, scribes and court officials life size and workers and peasants always shown working. The images of the pharaoh, always larger than life, made him appear all the more god-like. The large works of sculpture were often displayed at temples that were built for the pharaoh's chosen deity."
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Koriun, 2002.
Examines the life and works of this fifth century Christian-Armenian scholar.
1,260 words (approx. 5.0 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 42.95
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Abstract
Koriun was one of a few 'historians' who have documented the time and early history of Armenia. This paper discusses this Armenian scholar of the 5th Century who was among those who first translated the Bible into Armenian. It examines his most valid contribution to Armenian literature - "The Life of Mashtots", a book based on the life of his mentor, St. Mashtots Vardapet.
From the Paper
"Christian literature in the 5th Century was limited within Armenia. Elsewhere, church historians contributed their recordings regarding influential changes in Christian literature and relevant translations of doctrines. Writers like the 5th-century church historian Gennadius of Marseilles documented the life the life of Nicetas of Remesiana and his sacred musical influences to converted Serbians.
Such historians are of value to the period as by the end of the 5th Century, the Roman Empire was split in two, with Milan as one capital and Constantinople as another. During invasions in the east, vandals and Goth invaders destroyed many manuscripts and doctrines."
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