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Theory of Grammaticalization, 2007.
A discussion of the theory of grammaticalization as it is defined within current linguistic literature.
3,452 words (approx. 13.8 pages), 12 sources, APA, $ 97.95
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Abstract
This academic paper examines contemporary linguistic theory, with a focus on grammaticalization in the development of language. This analysis is made for both language form and in acquisition by individuals. The author challenges the idea that language is structural. The paper addresses this issue by evaluating ideas that view grammaticalization as an epiphenomenon of language.
Outline
Abstract
Introduction
Epiphenomenon
Grammaticalization Defined
Grammaticalization as Epiphenominon
Works Cited
From the Paper
"In a sense the epiphenomenon of grammaticalization, as many would claim is the psychological response to the neurologically fixed brain functioning that creates workable mental shortcuts through the utilization of commonly occurring rules that are unique to individual languages and to some extent people. The brain functions to save the individual undue work in forming language, when common rules are oft repeated and in so doing, as the theory goes it leaves the individual capable of the creation of language in an easy almost non-thinking manner. (Anderson, and Lightfoot 162) Yet, when an individual attempts, once these shortcuts have been set, to learn a unique language, a variation of ones own language, say modern English as compared to Middle English or even the English spoken in another country in the present world, he or she is stymied by these shortcuts as they would need to be eradicated or altered (which theory claims is difficult if not impossible to do) to think in and become fluent in another language. (Healy 3)"
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English-Language Learner, 2007.
An analysis of the effects that a lack of primary English language skills has on the students in primary and secondary grades in the United States.
1,453 words (approx. 5.8 pages), 10 sources, MLA, $ 48.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the situation in the United States for English-language learner (ELL) and English as a second language (ESL) students. It particularly describes the effects of a lack of primary English language skills on the students in primary and secondary grades. It also discusses the effects of these students receiving much of their instruction from content-area teachers or para-educators. The paper offers brief recommendations to improve the situation for ESL and ELL students.
From the Paper
"As a result of those policies and practices, many ELLs receive much of their instruction from content-area teachers or para-educators who have not had appropriate preparation or professional development to address their second-language development needs or to make content instruction comprehensible. This situation hinders their academic success. Not only do teachers need more preparation to work with ELLs but they also need to know the type of instruction that is most effective for these students, a population whose growing numbers requires that educators take a serious look at their instructional programs. Therefore, it is evident that the best course of action is preparation. With proper preparation and understanding, teachers will be better suited to aid ELLs/ESL's. (Echevarria, Short & Powers, 2006)"
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Speech Language Pathology, 2007.
This paper explores the education and employment of speech language pathologists.
1,248 words (approx. 5.0 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 42.95
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Abstract
The paper researches and examines the qualifications necessary for the career of the speech language pathologist. The paper looks at the educational requirements, colleges that offer preparation for this career and the costs of attending a college or university. The paper also discusses the employment outlook, earnings, the nature of the work, the working conditions and the typical day of a speech-language pathologist.
Outline:
Objective
Introduction
Educational Requirements
Colleges Offering Courses for Speech Language Pathology
Costs of Attending College or University
Employment Outlook
Earnings
Nature of the Work in Speech Pathology Field
Working Conditions in Speech Pathology Career
Typical Day Informational Interview
Summary and Conclusion
From the Paper
"The speech-language pathologist is one who treats individuals with "speech, language, voice and fluency disorders" (U.S. Department of Labor, 1997) Specifically the speech-language pathologists treats those who are unable to make sounds of speech or who cannot make those sounds clearly as well as those with problems in speech rhythm and fluency. One example of this is stuttering. Direct clinical services are provided by the speech-language pathologist to individuals who have communication disorders."
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Do Apes Speak?, 2007.
An in-depth examination of the speech and comprehension present in apes.
5,036 words (approx. 20.1 pages), 27 sources, MLA, $ 127.95
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Abstract
The paper provides an extensive literature review on the topic of communication among apes and discusses how it seems clear that apes can acquire some form of language and communicate with humans. The paper reveals that there is also evidence that apes may have a form of language of their own by which they communicate with each other. The paper discovers that apes would not normally acquire such capabilities on their own, but they can be trained to use language and respond to its meaning.
Outline:
Introduction
Review of Literature
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Research has been conducted for a long time on questions about the origin of language and how human beings first learned to speak. More recently, research has shifted to various primate studies as to whether or not other primates have what can be considered a language and in some cases whether apes can be taught to understand language and even to speak. Some of the early experiments in this area were seen as promising by some and as self-delusion by others, but the research continued and has produced a number of interesting results that may bring us closer to understanding the genesis of language and how widespread language is in the animal kingdom."
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Native American Influence on American English, 2007.
An analysis of the history of certain American English words that have their roots in Native-American languages.
2,938 words (approx. 11.8 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 86.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the influence of Native-American languages on American English. It begins by discussing the variety, origin and roots of Native-American languages. It then discusses early contact between settlers and Native-Americans and the evidence that has been found to suggest that American English was influenced by this contact, particularly the names of places names that were named after the tribes that occupied the location.
Table of Contents:
The Lumbee
What Does this Mean for Native American Words in American English?
From the Paper
"In conclusion, tribal languages are typically spoken only in places where tribal members are isolated. However, it is doubtful if there are any areas left where the tribal language is spoken exclusively. Typically the tribal language exists alongside English. As the number of native speakers diminishes, so does the usage of that language until it is eventually extinguished. This has been the fate of many native languages. The remnants that remain in American English are testimony to their existence. In some cases they are one of the last remaining references to their existence. The study of native American words in the English language gives us a glimpse into many ancient languages that are long forgotten and can give us clues to the cultures of these people as well. The study of Native language remnants is a testimony to the tribes and peoples that once represented the dominant culture in North America."
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Speech Comprehension, 2007.
This paper explores five articles on the subject of speech and word comprehension.
1,198 words (approx. 4.8 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 41.95
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Abstract
The paper examines an article about the phonological and conceptual activation in speech comprehension and an article about the activation of offset-embedded words. The paper also examines an article about the role of prosodic boundaries in the resolution of lexical embedding in speech comprehension and an article about electro-physiological evidence for early contextual influences during spoken-word recognition. The last article is about the cascaded nature of lexical selection and integration in auditory sentence processing.
From the Paper
"This article focuses on the process of understanding as it relates to separate lexical representations of sound and meaning. The phonological and conceptual representations in language have been separated, as comprehension are connected to these different concepts separately. In explaining these concepts, the article distinguishes between word representation in the mental lexicon and the lexical candidates for recognizing utterances. When the hearer is the presented with running speech with few clear cues to word boundaries, a mechanism is needed to determine the best sequence in terms of the input. In this way the correct utterance is determined by competition."
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The Evolution of Language, 2006.
A look at how language has evolved and the factors that influence these changes.
2,103 words (approx. 8.4 pages), 7 sources, APA, $ 66.95
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Abstract
This paper takes a look at the history and evolution of language. The paper discusses the various factors that influenced the changes in our language. According to the paper, one of the biggest influences on our modern language, was the development of the computer and related technologies. The paper further discusses how words are adopted from other languages to become an accepted part of another tongue.
From the Paper
"The next huge change in language was also due to technological change, but instead of printed books, it was a great change in our environment. Technological development was accelerated by the development of the personal computer. All this "new stuff" had to have names. Sometimes, a new name might simply be a new meaning for an old word. One such example is the word "bug". In the 1940s the only computers in use were huge machines: Eniac, Univac etc. These machines were made using vacuum tubes, some of which burned out every time the computer was used. People on roller skates would replace the burned out tubes after every use. One day, the machine stopped working, and no burned vacuum tubes could be found. A concerted search of the entire machine turned up a large moth fried on the wires behind one circuit panel. That is how the word "bug" became a problem in computer functioning, both mechanical and digital. (AskOxford.com 2006)"
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Psycholinguistics, 2007.
A discussion on the history and development of psycholinguistics.
2,161 words (approx. 8.6 pages), 10 sources, MLA, $ 67.95
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Abstract
The paper provides a definition of psycholinguistics and describes the first steps taken in its development and the significant discoveries made in subsequent stages until today. The paper explains that psycholinguistics examines the psychology of language and concerns the study of the psychological processes involved in language acquisition. The paper concludes that it is reasonable to assert that the existing body of knowledge concerning psycholinguistics will continue to grow in the future.
Outline:
Introduction
Review and Discussion
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Although different sources credit different researchers with its development, all signs point to Noam Chomsky as one of the early proponents of psycholinguistics as it is applied today. In his book, The Psychology of Language: From Data to Theory, Harley (2001), reports that the history of psycholinguistics is a relatively recent one. "Although it is often traced to a conference held in . . . 1951, the approach was certainly used before then. . . . If we place the infancy of modern psycholinguistics sometime around the American linguist Noam Chomsky's (1959) review of Skinner's book Verbal Behavior, its adolescence would correspond to the period in the early and mid-1960s when psycholinguists tried to relate language processing to transformational grammar" (12)."
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Etymology of the Word 'Scum', 2006.
A discussion regarding the word 'scum'.
1,026 words (approx. 4.1 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 36.95
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Abstract
This paper takes a look at the word, 'scum'. According to the paper, the word 'scum' has various applications and definitions. The paper reviews the history of the word and discusses how 'scum' can be used as a noun, a verb or an adjective.
From the Paper
"The zero-grade form sk - was suffixed to form sk -mo-. Its derivatives are skim, from the Old French excume or scum, meerschaum, from the Old High German sc m, also implying scum, and scum, from Middle Dutch sch m. All of the three mentioned derivatives come from Germanic sk maz meaning foam or scum, implied in "that which covers the water". The form sk - was also suffixed to sk -ro-. Its derivatives are obscure and chiaroscuro from the Latin obsc rus meaning "covered or dark". The prefix ob- in Latin means "away from". "
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Teaching Foreign Language to Infants, 2007.
An analysis of the benefits of teaching foreign languages to young children.
2,634 words (approx. 10.5 pages), 8 sources, MLA, $ 79.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the benefits of teaching infants a foreign language. It begins by discussing the prevalence of bi or tri-lingualism in the world. It then discusses if it is beneficial to know a foreign language. The paper goes on to discuss the advantages of specifically learning the foreign language while still young, particularly focusing on the cognitive effects on the brain.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Knowing a Foreign Language
Advantages Knowing a Foreign Language
Learning a Foreign Language While Young
Cognitive Effects to the Brain
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Teaching an infant with a foreign language may be a hard task. This entails perseverance and strong commitment from the teacher (or the parent). This will also require full understanding, not only of the language itself, but also of the needs of the infant. But this task is beneficial and will prove to be very useful as the infant grown old.
However, it should be noted that the success of teaching an infant to learn a foreign language lies on the hand of the educators. To them lies the secret of successfully teaching the child of their second language. If they know how to treat and teach a child (of barely less that 5 years of age, or even less), then it will not be a difficult task for the child to adopt very well on the said foreign language. It somehow goes like this... an educator, or the parents for that matter, initially teaches the child with the second language... and then the child will do the rest."
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First & Second Language Acquisition, 2006.
A review of first and second language acquisition and teaching focusing on Malaysian native speakers.
1,556 words (approx. 6.2 pages), 8 sources, MLA, $ 51.95
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Abstract
This paper addresses the manner in which knowledge on first and second language acquisition and learning, can contribute to a better, effective teaching of second languages, taking the Malaysian native speaker into consideration.. According to the paper, research indicates that almost a quarter of the kindergarten through twelfth grade students in the United States cannot function academically in English, and thus have been termed "English Language Learners" (ELL).
From the Paper
"A 2001 study conducted by Hawkins investigated the effect of total language immersion as opposed to ESL pullout programs on the achievement of eighth grade immigrant students in a rural American school. The review of related literature supported the idea that total language immersion was more beneficial than ESL pullout programs for immigrant students who were mainstreamed into the American school system (Hawkins, 2001). In the study, two groups of students were given an essay pre-test in August. The experimental group was mainstreamed within the regular classroom population while the non-experimental group was pulled out of the regular classroom and instructed by the ESL teacher using a regular classroom teacher's lesson plans (Hawkins, 2001). Both groups of students were instructed at similar times of the day using the identical lessons and assignments. In December, both groups were tested using an essay post-test and graded the same way as the pre-test. The results of the study concluded that the total immersion was more effective in raising the written essay scores of the experimental group (Hawkins, 2001). "
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Language Acquisition, 2007.
This paper explores the debate of nature vs. nurture in language development.
1,546 words (approx. 6.2 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 50.95
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Abstract
The paper discusses the nativist theory that children have some built in or learned knowledge of ideas before the actual development of language. These theorists believe that functions of language are universal and innate. The paper then looks at the functionalists and anti-nativists who argue that culture and language itself shape the meanings behind language. Finally, the paper discusses those theorists who believe that children possess innate understanding of ideas before language and also learn about ideas from language and culture. The paper examines the ideas of Dan I. Slobin, Behrens Heike, Melissa Bowerman and Soonja Choi.
From the Paper
"How exactly do children learn to connect language with the things around them? Though virtually all of us were participants in this complex process, a full understanding of how children learn language and learn through language is a matter of debate. Primarily, the debate takes on two major points on view. Those who argue for a nativist theory find that children have some built in or learned knowledge of ideas before the actual development of language (Shanker 481; Slobin 407). These theorists believe that functions of language are universal and innate. This is the "nature" side of the argument."
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Intercultural Communication, 2007.
This paper explores the effectiveness of promoting English as the official language of the United States in order to improve intercultural communication.
1,917 words (approx. 7.7 pages), 8 sources, MLA, $ 61.95
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Abstract
The paper discusses how many different languages are spoken within the United States' borders. The paper examines whether this makes communication and hence understanding between these cultures difficult. The paper investigates racial overtones in the Rodney King beating, the O.J. Simpson trial and the U.S. Patriot Act. The paper shows how language is not at the root of the cultural divide in the country; rather the problem is one of deep-seated communication and understanding. The paper contends that the funds and effort should be channelled into events and legislation that would encourage different cultures to truly communicate with each other, regardless of the language they use to do so.
From the Paper
" The United States of America has been home to an increasingly multitude of cultures since the first immigrants came to its shores during the 1600's. The pursuit of the "American Dream" concept has furthermore made the country attractive for immigrants from many diverse countries. The result is that many different languages are spoken within the country's borders. This often makes communication and hence understanding between these cultures difficult. Phenomena such as racism and hate crimes are often blamed upon this lack of understanding. It is true that racism often arises in criminal and other cases heard in American courts."
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Second Language Learners, 2007.
This paper discusses teaching methods for learning a second language and focuses on Stephen Krashen's theories on language acquisition.
750 words (approx. 3.0 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 26.95
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Abstract
In this article, the writer claims that one may say that Stephen Krashen is an advocate of total immersion teaching to encourage second language learning in and out of the classroom. The writer points out that Krashen's techniques are worth studying because they provide educators with new approaches to teaching a second language in the classroom. Further, the writer notes that his techniques and hypotheses also counter traditional lecture style teaching and encourage educators to adopt more comprehensive practices to help students master a new language. The writer concludes that Krashen's techniques are important to study because they can provide educators with new methods for teaching second languages to students in a helpful and comprehensible environment.
Outline:
Introduction
Acquisition Learning
Monitor
Natural Order
Input
Affective Filter
Summary and Conclusions
From the Paper
"This hypothesis is the basis of all other hypothesis presented by Krashen. The acquisition learning hypothesis focuses more on an individual's need to acquire skills in a second language than it focuses on the actual process of learning traditionally involved in a classroom setting. The whole basis of Krashen's concepts in fact, relies on one's ability to acquire language skills. The acquisition hypothesis suggests people have an acquired and learned system of entertaining a new language, with the acquisition process involving meaningful interaction in the "target language" . Using this hypothesis one may acquire language best through natural communications. Learned system process is the process of actually learning a language, like in a classroom environment."
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Headlines, 2007.
This paper analyzes the structure and function of headlines by examining their grammar and vocabulary.
1,373 words (approx. 5.5 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 45.95
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Abstract
The paper examines headlines from Associated Press (AP) news and compares them with headlines from the news magazine "Time." The paper highlights the differences between the AP and "Time" headlines and shows how each news organization writes headlines for its intended audience. The paper discusses how headlines may seem like a very small part of a news article or story, but they are the primary way a reader decides whether to read an article or not. The paper concludes that headlines, therefore, are one of the most important parts of any news story.
From the Paper
"The first headline comes from Time magazine, and is the headline for a book review regarding a biography of a man named James Holman. The headline reads "Have Cane, Will Travel." Immediately, it draws the reader into the article, posing questions the reader wants answered. 'Why does the person carry a cane, and where do they travel?' might be two of the first questions that pop into the reader's mind. The lead paragraph literally 'leads' the reader on, introducing the book and the person it chronicles, but still not answering the questions the headline generates. It is not until the end of the second paragraph that the reader learns the 'rest of the story' - that Homan was blind, and traveled the world in the 19th century, when travel was much more difficult, especially for a blind man."
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