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Vivian Cook's Second Language User Model, 2005.
This paper discusses the application of Vivian Cook's second language user model to the acquisition of pragmatic competence in the teaching of second languages.
880 words (approx. 3.5 pages), 1 source, MLA, $ 31.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that the theory of multi-competence, developed and advocated by Vivian Cook, states that a human mind is potentially capable of possessing the linguistic competence of more than one language; thus, multilingual speakers are the norm. The author points out that, in terms of language teaching, the model of multi-competence can be applied mainly for an acquisition of sufficient grammatical competence, which apart from general data provision can be achieved through the setting of parameters. The paper relates that, since the primary goal of language teaching is to create successful L2 speakers, the teaching of pragmatic competence in a language should include cultural and inter-cultural studies, cognitive training and general input in that language.
From the Paper
"Yet it is important to point out that the way these two grammars co-exist in the same mind also implies its mutual interference and interdependence: at a certain level of acquisition, the two grammars must form a single language system rather than two separated systems. Thus, multi-competent state of mind represents, in fact, not a mere combination of two monolingual systems but rather a single language system, which can be described as an indivisible linguistic unity. This statement can serve as an explanation for the fact that the vast majority of the second language (L2) learners even on the advanced level are not able to produce language in the same way the native speakers do, since the multilingual language users have several interrelated languages in mind: In short the state of mind of a multilingual language user is just different from that of a monolingual."
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Linguistics and the Criminal Justice System, 2006.
This paper examines the connection between linguistic terminology and its effects on international law enforcement.
1,597 words (approx. 6.4 pages), 2 sources, APA, $ 52.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the effect of language on international law enforcement. In particular, the terms "martyr" and "murderer" are considered. The author contends that the brain is at least partly fooled by this terminology. The paper concludes that law enforcement is done a disservice by using these terms, the result being that murderers are cut at least some psychological slack. It is a matter of justice being linguistically turned upside down.
From the Paper
"Elias told the tale of Rodney King. No matter what deeds of misdeeds King had perpetrated, when his beating by California police officers was caught on tape, there was abundant proof of excessive force being used to subdue the man. And yet, because of the continuing tough stance of the government in its attack on crime, the beating was seen as a reasonable response by many people. In the aftermath of such incidents, Congress wrote ever tougher crime bills which, Elias contends, "provided no new strategies" but instead "merely intensified what had already been tried and shown to fail: building more prisons, curbing defendants' rights, stiffening penalties, and so on. Yet despite such draconian measures, crime rates continue to rise, and the fear of crime has reached staggering levels" (1994, p. 3+)."
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Polish Syntax, 2006.
This paper discusses the Polish language and provides an introduction to the syntax of Polish.
3,020 words (approx. 12.1 pages), 5 sources, APA, $ 88.95
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Abstract
In this article, the writer looks at the Polish language which like other Slavic languages, represents an inflecting, or fusion type of language, in which single grammatical morphemes combine several functions: case, gender, and number in noun forms; person and number in verb forms. The writer claims that the Polish grammatical system closely parallels that of Russian.
Contents:
Introduction
Syntax in Polish Literature
Consider the Following Polish Examples (Giejgo 1981)
The Study and Results
Works Cited
From the Paper
"Because Polish retains a rich inflectional system, morphology is the main device for expressing syntactic distinctions. Word order has grammatical functions only to a limited extent, and hence it can serve other purposes, namely, it performs pragmatic functions. Deviations from the standard (unmarked) SVO order serve the purposes of topicalization; and combined with focal stress, word order expresses special emphasis on certain elements, in a way independent from discourse structure. Furthermore, the rich inflectional system makes it possible to apply ellipsis to a much larger extent than in English. Passive participles are used in passive voice constructions. In spoken language, however, these have a limited range of use, as word order flexibility is sufficient for expressing focus, and a number of subjectless active constructions can be used for subject downgrading. Those occurring in spoken language typically involve perfective participles, used in order to refer to a resulting end state of some action, performed by an unspecified agent which is either unknown or evident or simply irrelevant. These cannot be called truncated passives, as full passives are practically never used. They are rather a subclass of attributive sentences making statements about objects."
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Globalization and the Extinction of Small Languages, 2006.
A discussion of the effects of globalization on the world's small language groups and their cultures.
750 words (approx. 3.0 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 26.95
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Abstract
This paper examines globalization as the most important reason why small languages are dying out. Some believe that small languages fade into oblivion because local communities and educators do not stress the significance of keeping these indigenous languages alive. The author argues that youth is the vehicle through which languages can be kept alive and transferred to the next generation. The author argues, however, that most young adults are not really interested in preserving local languages or culture. Due to vast exposure, they have come under the spell of stronger languages and culture which is the primary reason we fail to notice the beauty and richness of local languages.
From the Paper
"The writer goes to explain why any language, strong or weak, big or small, minor or major is important. "It is not merely a writer's conceit to think that the human world is made of words and to remember that no two words in all the world's languages are alike. Of all the arts and sciences made by man, none equals a language, for only a language in its living entirety can describe a unique and irreplaceable world." (p. 43) He describes an experience where he realized that indigenous languages are far more colorful and expressive than the well-known widely spoken ones. Shorris comes to see why the existence of small languages is important and realizes that the extinction of these languages would be a huge loss to articulation and expression. "
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Bilingualism in the California Classroom, 2006.
An examination of how teachers should approach bilingualism both in and outside of the classroom.
965 words (approx. 3.9 pages), 3 sources, APA, $ 34.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the challenges of bilingualism in a child's life. The author argues how the presence of two languages can impact expression in different settings and amongst different groups of people. This is especially true in the context of the classroom. The writer also considers dialects as a form of bilingualism. Teachers are encouraged to teach using standard English while respecting their students' linguistic diversity.
From the Paper
"Thus, bilingualism and diversity is a reality in the United States, and this is true, perhaps even more so, in California. Bilingualism alone produces not simply many languages but many dialects. Spanish is one of the most common languages other than English spoken in the United States. (Chaika, 1994, p.35) Mexican-Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Dominican-American children may make up a teacher's classroom, and depending if these bilingual students are first, second or third generation, may speak with a different level of English and Spanish fluency. Between even their own forms of Spanish, however, there will many regional differences in dialect and vocabulary. Thus, teacher cannot even assume a natural cohesion between all Spanish speakers in the classroom, but approach every child from his or her own unique cultural and familial context."
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Communicative Language Teaching, 2005.
This paper is a literature review of communicative language teaching (CLT).
2,785 words (approx. 11.1 pages), 10 sources, APA, $ 83.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that communicative competence is made up of four competence areas: Linguistic, which is knowing how to use the language's grammar, syntax and vocabulary; sociolinguistic, knowing how to use and respond to language appropriately; discourse, knowing how to interpret the larger context and to construct a coherent whole and strategic, knowing how to recognize and repair communication breakdowns by working around gaps in one's knowledge of the language. The author points out that communicative language teaching (CLT) began because educators and linguists were dissatisfied with the audiolingual and grammar-translation methods of foreign language instruction. The paper stresses that communicative language teaching places great emphasis on helping students use the target language in a variety of contexts and places great emphasis on learning language functions.
Table of Contents
Communicative Competence
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
Principles and Characteristics of CLT
Communicative Activities
Teacher's Roles in Communicative Language Teaching
Implementation of CLT in ESL and EFL Countries
From the Paper
"Other research studies focus on the difficulty attributed to the English as a first language environment. In 1996, studies by Stapleton pointed out how Confucianism as a belief system appears to be in tension with underlying notions of communicative language teaching. In these studies, Stapeton examined the theory that Confucianism establishes the superior status and knowledge of the teacher over that of the students, thus elevating the role of the teacher above the students. In 1998, Li studied teaching and learning in China, concluding that local conditions seem to be detrimental to communicative language teaching methodology."
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Written Language Analysis, 2006.
A written language analysis of three separate newspaper articles about the March 21, 2005 Red Lake, Minnesota high school massacre.
2,615 words (approx. 10.5 pages), 4 sources, APA, $ 78.95
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Abstract
Using Foucault's Theory of Language/Power Relationships, this paper analyzes the way that three different newspapers reported on the March 21, 2005 Red Lake, Minnesota high school shooting incident. The paper analyzes the way that each newspaper described the incident, the similarities and differences between the three descriptions and looks at which relationship(s) of power each of the three articles emphasizes within the language of the article itself.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Methodology
Analysis
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Additionally, as Foucault (1970a; 1970b; 1972; 1980) suggests, discourse (language) is similar to a scientific system, or "discipline" that operates within a given social context or contexts (e.g., a work situation; a classroom; a written historical account; a newspaper article). Human discourses (e.g., spoken or written language) are never free, according to Foucault, of inflected, or implied, meaning(s) within that particular context(s). In other words, as Foucault (and later, Derrida, Fairclough, and others) asserted, discourse in never just written or spoken language that is neutral. Therefore, under Foucault's theory, there can be no such thing as completely neutral newspaper reporting, since language (that is, the written language by which the report is made) will always be inflected with meaning according to hidden (or not so hidden) relationships of language and power."
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Human Communication Analysis, 2006.
This paper analyzes the field of cybernetics and human communications while focusing on the views and opinions of linguistics expert Gregory Bateson.
1,817 words (approx. 7.3 pages), 2 sources, MLA, $ 58.95
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Abstract
This paper details the published research relating to human communication analysis, based on intra-personal, interpersonal and group interaction. This paper details Gregory Bateson's perception and definition of second-order cybernetics which illustrates an interactive system wherein the individual is constantly in relation with his or her own social environment. This paper analyzes both the quantitative and qualitative realities objectified in the field of cybernetics. The writer of this paper contends and explains the manner in which cybernetics objectively looks into the social phenomenon of being studied, noting its nature and dynamics through subjective measures. This paper examines and explains the reasoning behind Bateson's cybernetics learning process, as detailed in his book "Steps to an Ecology of Mind." This paper also delves into Bateson's discovery which clearly identifies the processes involved while interacting with the self, another communicator and other people from varying cultures and with different values.
From the Paper
"While in Learning I the individual is just learning and developing communication skills, in Learning II, s/he must now be able to identify acts and meanings that belong or do not belong to his/her culture. As exemplified earlier, distinguishing between the different actions in which agreement or disagreement are expressed is a manifestation of learning at the second level, where the communicator now commits action based on the context or situation s/he is in. Thus, when the individual is in a Middle Eastern society, it is essential to adopt the culture's communication action of agreement and disagreement, which is opposite to the individual's American culture and upbringing. These adjustments made by the communicator is an illustration of contextualization, the commitment of proper actions and meanings in an altogether different culture and society."
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Individualism in Language, 2006.
An evaluation of the interpretation of language.
1,300 words (approx. 5.2 pages), 2 sources, APA, $ 43.95
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Abstract
This paper studies language, the most important communication tool that humans use in their relationship with their fellow humans. As the paper demonstrates, words are not only the fundamental and primordial element of communication, they are also a means of connecting two individuals and giving expression and philosophical interpretation to that connection. This paper attempts to understand how that connection can be understood -- and misunderstood -- given the myriad ways language can be and is interpreted. The paper also concentrates on how the interpretation of language can alter the meaning of the actual words used in communication.
From the Paper
"The easiest way to define the intrinsic meaning of a word would be to relate it to its definition. According to Higginbotham and his "Elucidation of meaning", "there still may be a place in lexical semantics for some contribution of definitions to meaning" . Following on Higginbotham's explanation, there are several further elucidations that need to be interpreted. The first thing that comes to mind would be whether or not a definition of a word or term is identical with the meaning of that respective term. From a philosophical perspective, this cannot be so. First of all, the definition of a term is a mean by which a word is described. There is no philosophical certitude that the respective definition of a term covers all the characteristics of the word. It simply may be that some of these are left out or that the definition covers the term only from a certain perspective."
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Researching and Defining "Affordance", 2006.
This paper examines the origin and various definitions for the word 'affordance' which was coined by perceptual psychologist J. J. Gibson in the 1970s.
1,690 words (approx. 6.8 pages), 5 sources, APA, $ 54.95
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Abstract
This paper details the root meaning of the word 'affordance' as well as its plural 'affordances' which was invented by J.J. Gibson to refer to the actionable properties between the world and that of a living being. To Gibson, affordances were perceived as a relationship as well as a part of nature and as such did not have to be visible, desirable or known. The writer of this paper describes how these words have since been integrated into various fields such as: Academia, design, computers and business. The writer proves that the original conception of these words and their eventual usage soon became dissimilar when used in these different fields. The writer also discusses how both these words are defined and utilized into the fields of interest previously mentioned.
Table of Contents:
Thesis Statement
Affordance Defined
Important Current Research Findings
The Impacts and Conclusions
Bibliography
From the Paper
"Although the following research findings seem more of an historical nature than a current issue among researchers, quite the opposite is true. Affordance while not labeled as such has been in existence since the time of Aristotle and his models along with others have wound their way to the present time. However, research groups throughout the world today are finding a commonality or thread winding itself right into the heart of the affordance debate. These are the cultural constraints and the cultural conventions many of which are decades, if not centuries, old and still weigh heavily of affordance. For example, in graphical design, one is really talking about conventions that are normal to thinking of as logical and cultural restraints. Physical constraints have a close relationship to real affordances. Thus, it is not possible to move the cursor outside the screen."
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Bilingual Education in Early Childhood, 2006.
A study of nationally-mandated multi-lingual education for young migrant students in the United States.
1,350 words (approx. 5.4 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 45.95
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Abstract
This paper examines efforts by school districts to provide multi-lingual education, as required by the federal government. The paper focuses on special education services for migrant children and highlights shortcomings in the delivery of these services. The paper discusses identification of needy students and the process of inducting a student into the special education system. The paper concludes with recommendations for legislative and administrative change to dramatically improve the delivery of multi-lingual education. Thesis Statement A Brief Background and History Barriers in the System Identification of Students Conclusions and the Welfare Issue
From the Paper
"Bilingual Education and the word Bilingual itself are nothing more than "political buzzwords," designed to ease expensive and expansive legislation through the Congress. The actual study of the factors in this field of Education, particularly of early childhood periods, is the term Multi-lingual due to the many variants involved in the processes of teaching not only this group but their families as well. For example, in Texas where the problems are being addressed most aggressively these educators are dealing with a variety of Spanish languages speaking individuals. This becomes a multi-lingual problem therefore because of the paradigms of dialectics, syntax, sentence structures, and many other factors. These problems likewise are not in any manner limited to Texas, as almost every State in the country must deal with it on some level. Texas, and their recent Educational Reforms just happens to be the model producing system for others too effectively follow. Moreover, Spanish and all its variants is not the only language Educators are forced to deal with."
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Story Telling in Childhood Learning, 2006.
An analysis of how children learn and the importance of story telling in that process.
5,300 words (approx. 21.2 pages), 114 sources, MLA, $ 131.95
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Abstract
This paper studies how children develop language skills, as well as other auditory capacities, such as memory. The paper provides a detailed overview of the psychological and physiological changes that happen from infancy toward maturation. Then the paper explores the specific application of this research to language acquisition, focusing on the importance of story telling. The paper provides researched opinion that story telling helps young children to not only develop in their primary language, but in secondary languages as well. The paper concludes with recommendations to teachers for maximizing the language acquisition benefits of story-telling for their young students. Brief Analysis of the Quotation Why is Story Telling So Crucial in Childhood Learning What Implications Does Story Telling Have for Teaching English as a Second Language to Young Learners
From the Paper
"Developmental specialists have informed us that children must acquire a primary language by a certain age. What is not always understood by today's educators is that prior to age seven, children may acquire verbal facility in more than one language. After the age of seven, the child's ability to speak a second language as a native is limited as they appear to be unable make some specific sounds in second language that do not exist in the primary language. The younger a child or a young person acquires the second language after the age of seven the better their fluency. What does this tell us? Language is not just a tool; it is how we structure our reality. The latest theories in social science and linguistics reveal this to being true. Levi-Strauss, a linguistic anthropologist from the mid twentieth century, was one of the first social theorists to propose this."
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Krishna, the Divine Lover: Myth and Legend, 2006.
An investigation into the Hindu god Krishna's attribute, reflected in his nickname, of the "Divine Lover".
5,932 words (approx. 23.7 pages), 8 sources, MLA, $ 141.95
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Abstract
The paper begins by analyzing the meaning of gods and sacredness in the Hindu tradition, then it introduces the character of Krishna, the eighth avatar of Vishnu. It discusses his use of flute music to seduce gopis (lit., "herds-women"), and analyzes the character of gopis (Krishna's female devotees) for what they say about women's sexuality in the Hindu tradition. The paper presents various stories from Hindu literature many focusing on Krishna and his favorite gopi Radha, and analyzes the different states of emotion and sensuality described in that literature, defining and explaining Hindi terms. The paper briefly reviews modern Krishna worship, too. In conclusion, the paper finds that this loving side of Krishna was merely one more extension of his warlike nature - a means to destroy the wicked.
From the Paper
"Over the past twenty years, Hindu Gods have become something of a cottage industry in the West. Ranging from detailed anthropological treatments of regional traditions, to critical translations of fundamental sources on the Goddess, to text-based overviews of the history of Goddess cults, these studies have done much to compensate for a prior penury of scholarship concerning the distaff side of the Hindu pantheon.
"Maria Powers (1980) has argued, the contemporary analysis of the rites, rituals, and beliefs of a non-Western society often has a Western cultural bias. However, an explanation based on Western presuppositions does not provide us with a correct analysis. The conceptual framework, social constructs, necessitating interpersonal relations, and roads for spiritual fulfillment of a non-Western society differ strikingly from those of a Western society."
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Noam Chomsky, 2006.
An overview of the work and politics of famous linguist and activist, Noam Chomsky.
989 words (approx. 4.0 pages), 6 sources, APA, $ 35.95
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Abstract
This paper examines Noam Chomsky's pioneering and revolutionary work in linguistics (including a devastating dislike of a pioneer of another generation, B.F. Skinner), and his outlook on America's foreign policy.
From the Paper
"What is interesting about Chomsky's various linguistic investigations is that he seems to believe that there is a sort of universal repertoire of possible sounds from which natural language selects some. Chomsky, in this, opposes the once-popular views of B.F. Skinner, who felt that giving a baby repetitive sounds that have no formal meaning, that baby will ultimately respond, depending on the tone of those nonsense syllables. Chomsky, on the other hand, believes that anything other than a specific meaning for a specific tone and word is fallible and useless."
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Freud and Nietzsche, A Construction of Self, 2006.
An exploration and critical evaluation of the construction of the self as viewed by Sigmund Freud and Friedrich Nietzsche.
2,011 words (approx. 8.0 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 63.95
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Abstract
This paper evaluates and compares the philosophical point of view, as expressed by famous philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, of the construction of the self with that of Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytical point of view regarding the construction of the self. The paper concludes with a look at how each of these famous men contributed to the field of meta-psychology and by pointing out the urgency of developing a a common understandable language for this field.
From the Paper
"Although Friedrich Nietzche the famous German Rhetorician and Philosophical Language writer was never truly involved in psychoanalysis per se, his commentaries upon the use of linguistics do become important in the definition self for our purposes. For example, his many works concerning the meaning of truth not only deeply troubled the man and contributed to his early retirement from a prestigious university position they likewise created concerns for others in many and varied professions. The profession of teaching, on whatever level and the Medical Professions both physical and mental are good examples of the applications of his philosophies."
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