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Linguistics and Free Word Order, 2007.
A review of recent literature related to 'free word order' or 'scrambling' in Asian languages such as Japanese and Korean.
4,568 words (approx. 18.3 pages), 23 sources, APA, $ 118.95
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Abstract
This work reviews historical and recent literature related to 'free word order' languages, or those, which use 'scrambling' in sentence structure. These terms relate specifically to the placement of nouns and verbs within a sentence. The social theory of language acquisition is reviewed as well as cultural influences on language acquisition specifically related to 'free word order' language structure. Word order in various languages is examined and recent studies are reviewed.
Outline:
Objective
Introduction
Socio-Cultural Formation of Speech and Language
Previous Study in Language Acquisition
Differentiation between 'verb salient' and 'noun salient' Languages
Word Order in the Various Languages
Non-Configurationality in Languages
Computer-generated Processing of Languages
Summary
Bibliography
From the Paper
" 'Free word order' languages are those in which the structure of a sentence is constructed loosely in relation to the placement of nouns and verbs. The writer notes in the research process that there are many and various explanations and theories surrounding the structure or lack of structure in the free word order languages. Grammatical encoding has never been quite as relevant as in the present as computer-generated language translation is in use frequently in the lives of many. Communication barriers presented are evident in the confused communications and specifically between languages such as the English language with its formally structured sentence use of nouns and verbs and the languages of Korean and Japanese both 'free word order' languages.. "
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Theory of Grammaticalization, 2007.
A discussion of the theory of grammaticalization as it is defined within current linguistic literature.
3,452 words (approx. 13.8 pages), 12 sources, APA, $ 97.95
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Abstract
This academic paper examines contemporary linguistic theory, with a focus on grammaticalization in the development of language. This analysis is made for both language form and in acquisition by individuals. The author challenges the idea that language is structural. The paper addresses this issue by evaluating ideas that view grammaticalization as an epiphenomenon of language.
Outline
Abstract
Introduction
Epiphenomenon
Grammaticalization Defined
Grammaticalization as Epiphenominon
Works Cited
From the Paper
"In a sense the epiphenomenon of grammaticalization, as many would claim is the psychological response to the neurologically fixed brain functioning that creates workable mental shortcuts through the utilization of commonly occurring rules that are unique to individual languages and to some extent people. The brain functions to save the individual undue work in forming language, when common rules are oft repeated and in so doing, as the theory goes it leaves the individual capable of the creation of language in an easy almost non-thinking manner. (Anderson, and Lightfoot 162) Yet, when an individual attempts, once these shortcuts have been set, to learn a unique language, a variation of ones own language, say modern English as compared to Middle English or even the English spoken in another country in the present world, he or she is stymied by these shortcuts as they would need to be eradicated or altered (which theory claims is difficult if not impossible to do) to think in and become fluent in another language. (Healy 3)"
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Native American Influence on American English, 2007.
An analysis of the history of certain American English words that have their roots in Native-American languages.
2,938 words (approx. 11.8 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 86.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the influence of Native-American languages on American English. It begins by discussing the variety, origin and roots of Native-American languages. It then discusses early contact between settlers and Native-Americans and the evidence that has been found to suggest that American English was influenced by this contact, particularly the names of places names that were named after the tribes that occupied the location.
Table of Contents:
The Lumbee
What Does this Mean for Native American Words in American English?
From the Paper
"In conclusion, tribal languages are typically spoken only in places where tribal members are isolated. However, it is doubtful if there are any areas left where the tribal language is spoken exclusively. Typically the tribal language exists alongside English. As the number of native speakers diminishes, so does the usage of that language until it is eventually extinguished. This has been the fate of many native languages. The remnants that remain in American English are testimony to their existence. In some cases they are one of the last remaining references to their existence. The study of native American words in the English language gives us a glimpse into many ancient languages that are long forgotten and can give us clues to the cultures of these people as well. The study of Native language remnants is a testimony to the tribes and peoples that once represented the dominant culture in North America."
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The Evolution of Language, 2006.
A look at how language has evolved and the factors that influence these changes.
2,103 words (approx. 8.4 pages), 7 sources, APA, $ 66.95
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Abstract
This paper takes a look at the history and evolution of language. The paper discusses the various factors that influenced the changes in our language. According to the paper, one of the biggest influences on our modern language, was the development of the computer and related technologies. The paper further discusses how words are adopted from other languages to become an accepted part of another tongue.
From the Paper
"The next huge change in language was also due to technological change, but instead of printed books, it was a great change in our environment. Technological development was accelerated by the development of the personal computer. All this "new stuff" had to have names. Sometimes, a new name might simply be a new meaning for an old word. One such example is the word "bug". In the 1940s the only computers in use were huge machines: Eniac, Univac etc. These machines were made using vacuum tubes, some of which burned out every time the computer was used. People on roller skates would replace the burned out tubes after every use. One day, the machine stopped working, and no burned vacuum tubes could be found. A concerted search of the entire machine turned up a large moth fried on the wires behind one circuit panel. That is how the word "bug" became a problem in computer functioning, both mechanical and digital. (AskOxford.com 2006)"
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Psycholinguistics, 2007.
A discussion on the history and development of psycholinguistics.
2,161 words (approx. 8.6 pages), 10 sources, MLA, $ 67.95
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Abstract
The paper provides a definition of psycholinguistics and describes the first steps taken in its development and the significant discoveries made in subsequent stages until today. The paper explains that psycholinguistics examines the psychology of language and concerns the study of the psychological processes involved in language acquisition. The paper concludes that it is reasonable to assert that the existing body of knowledge concerning psycholinguistics will continue to grow in the future.
Outline:
Introduction
Review and Discussion
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Although different sources credit different researchers with its development, all signs point to Noam Chomsky as one of the early proponents of psycholinguistics as it is applied today. In his book, The Psychology of Language: From Data to Theory, Harley (2001), reports that the history of psycholinguistics is a relatively recent one. "Although it is often traced to a conference held in . . . 1951, the approach was certainly used before then. . . . If we place the infancy of modern psycholinguistics sometime around the American linguist Noam Chomsky's (1959) review of Skinner's book Verbal Behavior, its adolescence would correspond to the period in the early and mid-1960s when psycholinguists tried to relate language processing to transformational grammar" (12)."
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ESL Learning, 2007.
A comparative analysis of the works of N. Chomsky, M. Stubbs and M. Halliday and R. Hasan on English as a second language (ESL) learning.
2,301 words (approx. 9.2 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 71.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the actual and perceived competence of the ESL individual while communicating in the English language. More specifically, the paper centers the discussion on the concept of heterogeneous (communication) competence. It draws from the theories and concepts of linguists such as N. Chomsky, M. Stubbs and M. Halliday and R. Hasan. The paper posits that heterogeneous communication competence is a pragmatic concept that is developed, ironically, from linguistic theories and concepts.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
The Case Under Study
Analysis
Noam Chomsky: "Competence" And "Performance" In The ESL Context
Michael Stubbs: Vocabulary Generation & Development And Communication Competence
M. Halliday & R. Hasan: Communication Competence And Social Relations
From the Paper
"Looking into Marcella's narrative highlights this important insight by Halliday and Hasan. As previously mentioned in the preceding section, Marcella's use of the word "braves," rather than "waves," can create confusion to the other communicator when expressed. However, communication roles are assumed in the process of understanding her narrative: as the listener of the story, the other communicator seeks to understand the meaning of "braves" in the context of Marcella's story. Though this is the ideal situation--that is, the other communicator would seek understanding in making sense of Marcella's story--there will be cases in which she may not be understood by other listeners/communicators, and at the worst, being labeled as incompetent as a communicator because of her wrong word choice and usage. Power relations (conflict) emerges when this happens, wherein the other communicator, more knowledgeable of the English language, fails to understand the context in which Marcella's story is applied, thereby generating confusion and ineffective communication between Marcella and the communicator."
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Second Language Learners, 2007.
This paper discusses teaching methods for learning a second language and focuses on Stephen Krashen's theories on language acquisition.
750 words (approx. 3.0 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 26.95
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Abstract
In this article, the writer claims that one may say that Stephen Krashen is an advocate of total immersion teaching to encourage second language learning in and out of the classroom. The writer points out that Krashen's techniques are worth studying because they provide educators with new approaches to teaching a second language in the classroom. Further, the writer notes that his techniques and hypotheses also counter traditional lecture style teaching and encourage educators to adopt more comprehensive practices to help students master a new language. The writer concludes that Krashen's techniques are important to study because they can provide educators with new methods for teaching second languages to students in a helpful and comprehensible environment.
Outline:
Introduction
Acquisition Learning
Monitor
Natural Order
Input
Affective Filter
Summary and Conclusions
From the Paper
"This hypothesis is the basis of all other hypothesis presented by Krashen. The acquisition learning hypothesis focuses more on an individual's need to acquire skills in a second language than it focuses on the actual process of learning traditionally involved in a classroom setting. The whole basis of Krashen's concepts in fact, relies on one's ability to acquire language skills. The acquisition hypothesis suggests people have an acquired and learned system of entertaining a new language, with the acquisition process involving meaningful interaction in the "target language" . Using this hypothesis one may acquire language best through natural communications. Learned system process is the process of actually learning a language, like in a classroom environment."
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Advertising, 2006.
This paper discusses the theoretical and descriptive application of linguistics and retextualization to the field of advertising.
7,530 words (approx. 30.1 pages), 20 sources, APA, $ 165.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that advertising must catch the customer's eye and offer something that he or she is interested enough to read. The author points out that, although most large advertising agencies have been aware for some time of the use of color, text and design especially in print ads, smaller agencies or companies that wish to self-promote their products or services may have more difficulty with these particular issues. The paper describes three print ads, what is right and wrong with them and what should be done to correct the problems through retextualization.
Table of Contents:
Theoretical
General Introduction
Introduction to the Discourse of Advertising
Functions and Structure of Advertising Discourse
Components of the Advertising Discourse
Descriptive
Analysis of Advertisements
Retextualizations of Advertisements
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Many employers will take surveys and do other things to try to find out whether customers are satisfied with their company. Advertising agencies also do this, to determine what it is that people need and whether they like a new advertising campaign. After these have been conducted, the more conscientious companies will try to incorporate suggestions from their customers into the way that they do business in order to raise the satisfaction level that these customers feel when they shop with the company, and the more conscientious advertising agencies will try to adjust their advertisements so that they meet with the approval of the company that is buying the advertising and with the customers that will be viewing them."
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Headlines, 2007.
This paper analyzes the structure and function of headlines by examining their grammar and vocabulary.
1,373 words (approx. 5.5 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 45.95
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Abstract
The paper examines headlines from Associated Press (AP) news and compares them with headlines from the news magazine "Time." The paper highlights the differences between the AP and "Time" headlines and shows how each news organization writes headlines for its intended audience. The paper discusses how headlines may seem like a very small part of a news article or story, but they are the primary way a reader decides whether to read an article or not. The paper concludes that headlines, therefore, are one of the most important parts of any news story.
From the Paper
"The first headline comes from Time magazine, and is the headline for a book review regarding a biography of a man named James Holman. The headline reads "Have Cane, Will Travel." Immediately, it draws the reader into the article, posing questions the reader wants answered. 'Why does the person carry a cane, and where do they travel?' might be two of the first questions that pop into the reader's mind. The lead paragraph literally 'leads' the reader on, introducing the book and the person it chronicles, but still not answering the questions the headline generates. It is not until the end of the second paragraph that the reader learns the 'rest of the story' - that Homan was blind, and traveled the world in the 19th century, when travel was much more difficult, especially for a blind man."
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Language Acquisition, 2006.
A look at language acquisition skills in children.
1,520 words (approx. 6.1 pages), 9 sources, MLA, $ 50.95
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Abstract
This paper provides an overview of language acquisition among very young people. The paper also discusses steps that can be taken to assist them and what interventions should be avoided. The paper further provides a description of the research design, followed by a discussion of the findings.
Outline:
Abstract
Introduction
Research Design
Discussion of Findings
Conclusion
From the Paper
"While these young learners are getting a handle on the elements of speech at a very early age, there are other important factors that may come into play as well. According to Dixon and Smith (2000), there are two fundamental factors that contribute to the acquisition of language in the very young: (a) attentional control, and (b) stability of neutral affect. "Attentional control appears intrinsically crucial," they advise, "not only for its role in permitting children to attend to linguistic input, but also for minimizing distractions while the input is matched to preexisting semantic networks. Children with more finely developed attentional control also may be better able to enter into bouts of mother-child joint attention" (Dixon & Smith, 2000, p. 417). The authors cite a number of studies to date that have determined that the amount of time devoted to joint attention during free play times in early infancy has been positively related to language productivity in later toddlerhood, and add that maternal utterances that were designed to complement an infant's attentional focus were particularly indicative of linguistic productivity at 13 to 15 months (Dixon & Smith, 2000). "
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"Paper, Rock, Scissors", 2006.
An analysis of the article "Paper, Rock, Scissors" by J. Kim.
1,120 words (approx. 4.5 pages), 1 source, APA, $ 38.95
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Abstract
This paper analyzes the 2006 journal article by J.Kim titled "Paper, Rock, Scissors". According to the paper, Kim's article explains current reactions of South Korea and Japan concerning the ongoing diplomatic dispute over an islet. The paper further discusses how each government holds its own position that conflicts with the other. Kim goes on to use the children's game of paper, rock, scissors to explain this situation. The paper breaks up the article and analyzes it accordingly.
Outline:
Analysis
Title & Sub-title
Readership
The Purpose
Introduction & Conclusion
Structure
Attitude & Position
Ethical Writing
From the Paper
"Logical flows: Throughout the article, the readers can easily follow its logical flow. First, the author points out the important issue he will talk about in the article by using a comparison with the game mentioned. It is followed by other terms that are parallel to the game; "rock" hand as "hard power" and "scissors" hand as "soft power." He assumes that the most appropriate solution for South Korea is the combination of these two powers. To apply all these terms to the current situation, the author goes over the reactions of both parties. In addition, taking his own position in the article, he argues that there are some reasons behind the "soft" reaction of Japan, and follows with details of what Japan can get out of its action and what South Korea should be ready for."
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Freud and Kristeva, 2006.
This paper compares the communication theories of Sigmund Freud and Julia Kristeva.
2,030 words (approx. 8.1 pages), 10 sources, APA, $ 64.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that Julia Kristeva, known for her work in the field of semiotics, focuses on female communication; whereas, Sigmund Freud's communication theory has little to do with communication in terms of language and more to do with actions and reactions. The author points out that Kristeva's communication theories are based on primary process or semiotic chora, which in Freudian terms would be the pre-Oedipal incoherence that must be harnessed to ensure social cohesion. The paper relates that Kristeva's work appears to be an extension of Freud's theories, especially his psychoanalytic theory, which she calls 'semanalysis'. The paper further explains that Kristeva divides communication into the semiotic, which is similar to the Freudian term primary process, and the symbolic, which is similar to the Freudian term secondary process.
From the Paper
"The reason why dreams are illogical and out of sequence is because the main regions of the brain are deactivated during the dream sequences. Freud believed that dreams were symbolic and had to be decoded by the brain to reveal the workings of the mind. However, researchers state that the brain is quiet during the dreaming period and it does not decode anything. Whatever is shown in the dream are what it is and not a symbolic representation. Anything shown in the dream is not a fulfillment of a wish as Freud stated."
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"English with an Accent", 2007.
A discussion on the effects of speaking English with an accent.
2,821 words (approx. 11.3 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 84.95
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Abstract
This paper is an extensive review of the ideas put forward in Lippi-Green's book, "English with an Accent". It begins with a short example of the extent of language discrimination. It continues to discuss why a stereotype of people who speak with an accent exists. It also explores the effects that communicating with "improper" English has on society. The paper explains that language is a flexible tool for denoting social status and social allegiances. The author concludes that language discrimination, although subconscious, should be brought to light and dealt with.
From the Paper
" In school clarity of thought is linked to written language, and there is little effort to separate written from spoken. The aim is to make children active members of literacy communities rather than language communities. The silencing of voices considered unworthy or unequal is done by statements (such as, "It is inappropriate for a law student to ask a question in Hawaii'ian Creole English") (Lippi-Green, 1997, p. 107). A child in the classroom may be criticized for using vernacular English instead of Standard. At home the same child may be criticized for using Standard at the dinner table instead of the family's home language. The task for students is to discern when it is appropriate to use one or the other. "
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Mandarin Speakers' Production of English Vowels, 2007.
An analysis of Mandarin speakers' production and perception of English vowels and their mastery of the English language.
1,526 words (approx. 6.1 pages), 7 sources, MLA, $ 50.95
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Abstract
This study examines how production and perception of English vowels are affected by one's native language, specifically among Mandarin speakers. The paper examines the specific relationship between Mandarin speakers' production and perception of English vowels and their mastery of the English language, including their comprehension of intonation and pitch. The author hypothesizes that Mandarin speakers' would experience more difficulty mastering English vowels if their exposure to the English language encompassed one year or less.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Discussion
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Previous studies suggest that multiple factors affect speakers' ability to produce sounds and their perceptions of sound. Various studies including that conducted by Boroditsky (2001) suggest that how one speaks affects many aspects of their livelihood including how one views or perceives the world. Further studies suggest that when compared with native English speakers, Mandarin speakers tend to refer to different concepts in different ways, including describing time in different manners (Boroditsky, 2001). The results of this study are relevant as they suggest that language is a "powerful tool shaping thought" and that one's native language "plays an important role in shaping thoughts and thought processes" (Boroditsky, 20)."
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The Masoretes' Vowelization of God's Name, 2007.
A grammatical study into the vowelization of God's name in the Hebrew scriptures.
9,553 words (approx. 38.2 pages), 33 sources, MLA, $ 195.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the vowelization of God's name in the Bible. It begins by discussing punctuation in the Bible, particularly in the Hebrew scriptures. It then compares this use of grammar to other ancient languages. It discusses the evolution of the grammatical system, leading up to the system called 'Masoretic Hebrew' punctuation at the end of the twelfth century. The paper discusses in detail the different grammatical forms of God's name, particularly the Masoretes' vowelization of His name.
From the Paper
"When Jesus Christ was on the Earth, spending his Earthly life, he would always appeal to the very words of the Old Testament, and this was taken to be indicative of the fact that Jesus Christ himself approved of this version of the text, and that it had been exactly and accurately transmitted. This Old Testament was the version that was favored and used by the ancient Jews, and it was also considered to be an extremely trustworthy version of what had been originally written by Moses. The Old Testament books as they appear in the Hebrew Bible are actually divided into three distinct groups, and they are: the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings. It was the priests that were given the innate responsibility of preserving the texts, and this was because of the fact that these individuals were considered to be the divinely appointed guardians and the teachers of the Law. (Forever Settled: A Survey of the Documents and the History of the Bible)"
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