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Machiavelli's "The Prince", 2008.
This paper discusses how Niccolo di Bernardo Machiavelli's political thinking was profoundly shaped by lessons of history.
850 words (approx. 3.4 pages), 4 sources, APA, $ 30.95
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Abstract
The paper looks at Machiavelli's "The Prince" and his controversial political teachings that a wise prince should not feel himself bound by morals but should consider the needs of the state. The paper discusses how Machiavelli draws lessons from classical and recent history that are always filtered through his real-world experience. The paper maintains that it is this grounding in real-world historical examples that distinguishes Machiavelli's political guides from that of earlier theorists and supports the continuing validity of his work even in the present day.
From the Paper
"In contrast to earlier political philosophers such as Plato or Aristotle, whose political theories are primarily based upon logical argument with "real-world" political illustrations and applications being secondary, Machiavelli's political thinking was profoundly shaped by the lessons of history as filtered through the contemporary political events of his own time. For example, the political battles and intrigues of the Medici family, who dominated Florence through much of Machiavelli's youth, gave him insights into both successful and flawed political strategic thinking. In Machiavelli's The Prince and The Discourses he explores how past and present political events can be viewed as examples that illustrate general political rules or maxims which can guide a leader or prince in political action (Bondanella and Musa 1979). As modern scholars note, this characteristic of Machiavelli's work distinguishes him from earlier philosophers, and grounds his political theory in real-world experience."
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Law, Deontology and Utilitarianism, 2008.
This paper explores utilitarianism, deontology and lawyers' ethical duties.
766 words (approx. 3.1 pages), 8 sources, MLA, $ 27.95
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Abstract
The paper discusses utilitarianism, an ethical philosophy which holds that the right course of action is the course of action which provides the greatest good. The paper then looks at deontological ethics that believes a person has certain duties which he should carry out. The paper looks at Immanuel Kant's deontological beliefs of moral duties and discusses how duty requires a defense lawyer to zealously represent the defendant even if he/she knows that a client is guilty and believes that if the client is not imprisoned, he/she will commit more crimes. The paper further explains that an attorney is required to not take a case in which he cannot give zealous representation.
From the Paper
"Utilitarianism is an ethical philosophy which holds that the right course of action is the course of action which provides the greatest good or the greatest number. As articulated by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, this ethic holds that the two controlling emotions in life are pleasure and pain. Man prefers pleasure. Thus, for the isolated individual, an action producing pleasure is good; an action producing pain is bad. For a person in society, an action is good if the pleasure felt by all those affected is greater than the pain felt by those affected. (Hollinger 2002, pp. 32-33; Bentham, 1949; Mill, 1979)"
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Assessment of Bertrand Russell's "Value of Philosophy", 2007.
An examination of Bertrand Russell's dissertation "The Problems of Philosophy", focusing on the fifteenth chapter entitled "The Value of Philosophy".
904 words (approx. 3.6 pages), 1 source, MLA, $ 32.95
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Abstract
This paper explores Bertrand Russell's fifteenth chapter of "The Problems of Philosophy" entitled "The Value of Philosophy", as a means of assessing the rationale of the study of philosophy and its value within the lives of human beings. The paper explains how the Russell describes his concepts of philosophy as a mental endeavor and as a worthwhile subject of study. The paper demonstrates that the value of philosophy for Bertrand Russell consists of the enlargement of human capacity. The paper also discusses how Russell believed that the human being is confined by the rigors of life and often allows these to affect his decision-making processes. The paper also looks at how Russell suggests that philosophy is unique in that it reduces the human's influence and ability to control, thus transforming all efforts to participate in philosophical discovery to a state of pure spiritual achievement.
From the Paper
"Russell made a distinction between efforts that enriched the self materially and those that enriched the self mentally and spiritually. This theme is seen not only in his attitude towards government and the treatment of citizens by their governments, but also can be seen in his perception of philosophy as a worthwhile endeavor for study. He identifies that "practical" men are those whom merely frame the world in terms of "material needs," where each decision made is used to advance a personal agenda that increases his wealth, resources, or stature (Russell, 114)."
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Utilitarianism and Enron, 2008.
This paper explains the theory of utilitarianism in relation to the Valhalla oil trading scandal at Enron.
734 words (approx. 2.9 pages), 2 sources, MLA, $ 26.95
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Abstract
The paper provides an overview of the utilitarian moral theory and how it is applicable to the Valhalla oil trading scandal at Enron. The paper shows how this theory highlights important components of Enron's interactions with its environment and how Kenneth Lay dealt with ethical issues. The paper explains how utilitarianism allows unethical actions so long as these actions give rise to sufficient benefits and how the Valhalla oil trading scandal in Enron is an example of this.
From the Paper
"The utilitarian moral theory or the 'greatest happiness principle' according to notes from Russell Marcus is based on the idea that the moral measure of an action is measured by the addition to total utility. Specifically, the morally correct or right act produces the greatest utility/satisfaction/action for the most individuals within a society. Marcus's class notes identify the three clauses of the Utilitarian Moral Theory as 1) consequentialism; where acts are judged by their outcomes. 2) Hedonism; where outcomes are evaluated by the total amount of happiness/utility they derive for the individual. 3) Equalitarianism; where each individual is accounted for as one entity, that is, without just cause no one is worth more than another (Marcus)."
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Philosophy in Education, 2008.
This paper explores different philosophical perspectives and their role in education.
824 words (approx. 3.3 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 29.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses four different schools of thought and how they relate to reality, knowledge and value: nationalism, ethno-nationalism, utopianism and totalitarianism. The paper further looks at how these schools of thought contribute to education and how they impact the role and responsibilities of a special educator.
From the Paper
"Nationalism is the belief that one's nation is key to understanding a person's place and identity. The Stanford Enclyclopedia of Philosophy (2005) states, "Nations and national identity may be defined in terms of common origin, ethnicity, or cultural ties (para. 6). We can see a key element of this in the United States, particularly after September 11, 2001. After our nation was challenged, the nation came together for a common purpose and vision. Also, it is often taught (and assumed), that the United States is the best nation in the world. These views have a strong impact on our perspective on reality, for our point of reference is based around our nation. Thus, our knowledge and what we value will be based primarily around how things relate to the United States. For example, our news will be U. S. driven. This belief has a strong impact on special education, for as we encounter different facts that do not necessarily support our nationalism (such as the disturbing information about Abu Ghraib prison), we can choose to ignore them, or present them truthfully and risk destroying strong nationalism. It also limits our ability to understand the perspectives of other nations."
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Darwinian Challenge to Aristotle, 2008.
This paper looks at the Darwinian challenge to the Aristotelian world view and discusses why it is taking so long to resolve.
1,700 words (approx. 6.8 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 55.95
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Abstract
In this article the writer notes that according to Aristotle, one of the greatest influences on the development of Western civilization, the natural world is unchanging, eternal and purposeful. The writer points out that this epistemology dominated Western civilization for the two thousand years leading up to Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. The writer discusses that Darwin's contribution was to make the theory public, to promote it and to provide extensive empirical evidence to back it up. At the heart of the theory is the revelation that nature is not immutable, but subject to change. The writer concludes that continued resistance is to be expected, but not to be overly feared; it is the inevitable death throes of an ideology that is giving way to one that is simply a fitter adaptation to the natural world and its demands on the human species.
From the Paper
"With evidence mounting at every turn and only minor modifications being made to evolutionary theory (thanks to work mainly in molecular biology) many in the scientific community are astounded that a strong current of anti-Darwinism still persists anywhere, let alone in a modern nation such as the United States. Religious fundamentalism and intelligent design proponents have challenged the Darwinian world view since it upset the Aristotelian roughly one hundred fifty years ago. The scientific consensus is strongly in favor of evolution and the empirical evidence support the claims of evolutionary biology. Why does a current of opposition to the Darwinian world view still persist? It persists because two millennia is a long time for a cultural meme such as the Aristotelian world view to become entrenched and self-supporting. The Darwinians shouldn't be surprised that there is still resistance to their position after more than one hundred years--they should be amazed that after such a short historical period, the Darwinian world view is successfully subduing Aristotelian resistance wherever it is found."
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The Intelligent Design Theory, 2008.
An analysis of the intelligent design theory and its flaws in proving the existence of God.
1,554 words (approx. 6.2 pages), 2 sources, MLA, $ 51.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the intelligent design theory of deistic faith. It suggests that it is a teleological argument that is constructed from a basic argument from design perspective. The paper discusses the finer points of the design argument and concludes that the argument from design is a fundamentally flawed approach to the question of the existence of God.
From the Paper
"Worse for the position, not all things in the universe express any order whatsoever. The galaxies may be ordered groups of starts, but what about galactic nubulae, of which there are many more but which are significantly less ordered than spiral galaxies. The level of complexity is different for these two types of celestial organization making it difficult to comprehend when an object's behavior constitutes orderliness and when it does not. Add to this the fact that some entities in the universe are actually becoming less ordered with time--like the Sun, which is progressively breaking down over billions of years--and the notion that universe was designed to create order becomes even flimsier. It becomes difficult, or even outright impossible, to accept the argument from design perspective without a degree of faith that the designer exists in the first place. We begin to wonder whether or not proponents of this position postulated a designer to explain the ordered universe or if they have miraculously manifested a uniformly ordered universe in order to justify a belief in a divine designer."
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Suicide in America, 2008.
This paper evaluates the ethics and morality of suicide within modern American society.
1,210 words (approx. 4.8 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 41.95
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Abstract
This study examines the ethical and moral arguments that support or decline the validity of suicide within modern American society. By examining the role of assisted suicide for suffering patients, the autonomy of a person's own body argues that the law has no right to interfere with the rational taking of one's own life. In contrast, the writer maintains that the morality of the law often denies a person's self-autonomy due to the religious and ethical background of the American legal apparatus. In essence, these two contradicting points of view are analyzed within this ethical and moral evaluation of suicide in modern American society.
From the Paper
"Although the law makes it possible for a person to terminate life with the consent of a family member, the issue of self-autonomy and the right to life is deferred on religious morality and within the criterion of the Hippocratic Oath that many doctors adhere to in their medical code of ethics. These are the major factors that define how American law perceives suicide and how it can be dine within the parameters of social morality and ethical standards. Often, the basis of religious or medical ethics provide the legal standards that often enforce a lack of self-autonomy on the part of patient's to choose their own suicide. By understanding the basis of law, one can now examine the counter arguments for suicide that detail the right to live or die through a person's own bodily autonomy."
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"The German Ideology", 2008.
This paper explains how Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels' "The German Ideology" lays the philosophical foundations of Marxism.
1,236 words (approx. 4.9 pages), 1 source, MLA, $ 42.95
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Abstract
The paper discusses how "The German Ideology" serves as the groundwork for Marxist thought and outlines the basic principles of communist theory. The paper explains how, using the philosophy of history, Marx creates a school of thought through empirical evidence, quantifying class separation and the evolution of private property. The paper also discusses how Marx answers the problem of inequality and calls for the oppressed to take action against those who are in control.
From the Paper
"The German Ideology is the most cherished by many Marx critics and supporters as it lays the groundwork for the concept of materialist method. The challenge of creating such a method is conceived against the background of the then current state of the German government and its philosophers. In direct opposition to Hegelian's, Marx and Engels propose that the philosophy of history is not just a set of ideas to be championed; the philosophy of history demonstrates the development of the social communities, the derivation of property and the human need to own property; and the eventual desire by the underprivileged to seek alternative methods of changing the social construct of their communities. The German Ideology, using Feuerbach's conceptions of idealism and materialism as an analytic tool, lays the groundwork for the basic philosophical foundations for Marxism."
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Larry Lauden's 'A Confutation of Convergent Realism', 2008.
This paper analyzes and supports Larry Lauden's article 'A Confutation of Convergent Realism' published in a 1981 issue of "Philosophy of Science".
2,150 words (approx. 8.6 pages), 2 sources, MLA, $ 67.95
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This paper explains that Larry Lauden in his article 'A Confutation of Convergent Realism' formulates an argument against scientific realism from the perspective of pessimistic induction. The author points out that Lauden rightly states that other philosophers' suggestions that epistemological realism is an empirical hypothesis, which is authenticated by its ability to explain the workings of science, is becoming a significant problem. The paper presents Lauden's methods of attack from which he tackles this assumption of reference and demonstrates how the historical, empirical evidence simply does not exist to support the realist claims. The author concludes that Lauden's debunking of scientific realism via their epistemological dependence on reference and retention is a useful and effective method of philosophical analysis.
From the Paper
"Scientific realism is, most basically, the idea that "[m]ature scientific theories are (approximately true." Lauden delves into the meat of this basic statement by dissecting realism into bite-sized chunks that can be more easily analyzed and (in this case) refuted. While Lauden does debunk various aspects of scientific realism, one aspect of it with which he is particularly concerned is the matter of reference. Lauden lists five characteristics of convergent epistemological realism, which he has aggregated from the available resources on scientific realism."
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The Philosophical Rhetoric of Right and Wrong, 2008.
An analysis of cultural bias versus objectivity for journalism within the modern media according to Aristotle and Plato.
2,742 words (approx. 11.0 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 82.95
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Abstract
The aim of this paper is to bring forth the views of Aristotle and Plato to analyze the current issues of bias and objectivity that exist within the cultural construct of journalism and the modern media. By evaluating the issues of rhetoric as put forth by Plato and Aristotle, the paper shows how one can realize the often-tainted perspective for truth within the institutional nationalism and capitalism of modern media corporations.
From the Paper
"The philosophy of Plato is far more abstract than that of Aristotle, since it focuses more on the forms of higher understanding and the greater good. The term rhetoric was often not a complimentary word for Plato, as he often saw language and knowledge being used on a relativistic basis for the well being of those that sought to profit from non-virtuous political or social means. Often the lack of uniformity in defining what is the "greater good" in society is difficult, since the intellectual virtue discussed by Aristotle can often provide an abstract and often unrealistic set of ethical guidelines. "
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Foucault and Normalization, 2008.
A discussion of Michel Foucault's concept of the process of normalization in social organization and regulation.
1,236 words (approx. 4.9 pages), 6 sources, APA, $ 42.95
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Abstract
This paper analyzes the belief of Michel Foucault that social organization and regulation occurs most effectively through practices of normalization. It discusses the structures and strategies which facilitate social construction, regulation and especially the processes of normalization. The paper also provides examples from whiteness, heterosexuality and the culture of therapy in order to illustrate how normalization functions for the ends of social organization and regulation.
From the Paper
"Numerous mechanisms are at work in normalization through which social organization and regulation can be effected. The trend which can be observed repeatedly, however, that the most efficient and successful type of control is implemented when certain ideas and practices are subjected to normalization in the society. Governments regularly operate in this way, and psychiatry with its culture of therapy can produce ideas such as abnormality and then maintain an industry based on achieving normality. The construction of normality is associated with other constructions such as heterosexuality, whiteness, and sanity experts, and all of the constructions are linked with power. Being normal is synonymous with control and being linked to control, which creates a secure position when compared to the non-white, homosexual, neurotic or insane."
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Doux-Commerce, 2008.
An analysis of David Hume's concept of doux-commerce and the pursuit of luxury.
904 words (approx. 3.6 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 32.95
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This paper discusses doux-commerce. It analyzes David Hume's emphasis that the necessity of earning a living in a free-market environment requires people to conduct themselves in an acceptable manner, especially with their trading partners. It describes why Hume has been described as an apologist for luxury for his explanations regarding doux-commerce.
From the Paper
"In conclusion, David Hume has been described as an apologist for luxury because he emphasized that in a market setting, self-interest is the primary motivation for conducting oneself with politeness, sophistication, and cordiality. This motivation reflects the necessity of earning a living in a free-market system, which compels people to conduct themselves in an acceptable manner as they do business. This "doux-commerce" thesis describes the fundamental conditions of interaction through which participants must interact if they wish to thrive and prosper."
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Aristotle's Arguments For Democracy, 2008.
An analysis of Aristotle's arguments for democracy and justice.
1,519 words (approx. 6.1 pages), 1 source, MLA, $ 50.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses Aristotle's arguments for democracy, which are based on his concepts of the citizen, the city and the constitution. It compares his teaching that the aim and principle of a
constitution is its concept of justice to the teaching of his mentor, Plato. The paper analyzes Aristotle's concept of justice in a democracy.
From the Paper
"Aristotle, however, is still not satisfied. Although "the assembly, the council, and the court consist of many people" (Stalley 111) can and should act as a safeguard for unworthy people assuming office, Aristotle wants guarantees, and like the framers of the Constitution he wants it in writing. The means by which the constitution of a city organizes the life of its citizens is through law. Since rightly constituted laws are framed by Aristotle as the final sovereign, it is clear that "laws must be laid down in accordance with constitutions; and...it follows that laws which are in accordance with right constitutions must necessarily be just" (Stalley 112). The fact that Aristotle uses the plural may indicate that not only was he familiar with good and bad (perverted) constitutions, but he may even have recognized the need for a constitution to be amended because "owing to the difficulty of framing general rules for all contingencies [the may be unable] to make an exact pronouncement" (Stalley 112)."
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The Virtual Self, 2008.
This paper explores how the mind and body interact with virtual environments, focusing on the book "Remediation" by David Bolter and Richard Grusin.
1,036 words (approx. 4.1 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 36.95
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Abstract
The paper examines "Remediation" by David Bolter and Richard Grusin, which looks at the changing relationships between people and the media. The paper concentrates on the chapter "The Virtual Self", which deals with the way human identities are transformed by their interactions with virtual technologies. The paper discusses Cartesian philosophy and shows how the concept of the virtual self totally disproves the Cartesian beliefs. The paper provides examples of virtual selves in contemporary media.
From the Paper
"A major section of this chapter(pages 248-254) deals with the ways in which the mind and the body interact with virtual environments. These arguments look at Cartesian and anti-Cartesian elements of the virtual self.
"In order to understand these arguments it is first necessary to have an understanding of Cartesian philosophy. Basically Cartesian philosophy is based on the work of Rene Descartes. Descartes basically sees the mind and body as separate entities."
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