Abstract
This paper explains that, in Bettina Bradbury's research, between 1861 and 1891, mainly French-Canadian women are found living and working in a harsh way, which demanded general resourcefulness to maintain their families' survivals. The author points out that, in contrast, Joy Parr's study of Ontario's industrial towns after 1880 reveals women's closer connections to the waged labor economy. The paper stresses that Bradbury's depiction of working class women in Montreal is convincing and speaks to Canadian women in terms beyond economics or feminism. The author found that, despite much theory referring to positions of gender as somehow unitary, there are dangers in presuming the realities of working class women in the later 19th century. The paper concludes that this literature helps interpret a contemporary Canadian society, which still tends to disadvantage women.

Table of Contents:
Introduction
Situation versus Culture
Reflection
Last Remarks

From the Paper
"Few widows received pension incomes for their husbands had often not had pensions in the forms of employment available to them. A predictable aspect of law so disadvantageous to women was the woman to turn to prostitution for survival or those running brothels or taverns. Joy Parr's work refers to Paris, Ontario and the demand for mainly British factory hands, often women, who were already skilled contributors to factory life before emigration. The idea of women working beyond the home as losing their reputations prevailed in much attention to 'protecting' women in Paris Ontario, as in the Penmans company's payment of quite low wages but also providing recreational and health care services."

Tags:piecework, prostitution, services, children, husbands

Abstract
This paper examines two studies of working class women in 19th century Quebec and Ontario based on the gender history movement that borrowed from Marxist paradigms. Additionally, it considers working class history, addressing variety of working class cultures that differed tremendously from one another.

From the Paper
"Bettina Bradbury's research found in "Working Families - Age, Gender and Daily Survival in Industrializing Montreal" is more than a women's history or feminist subject. She discusses women between 1861 and 1891 towards a glimpse of mainly French-Canadian women in relation to family strategies of survival amid a harsh way of life that demanded general resourcefulness. In contrast, Joy Parr's study of Ontario's industrial towns after 1880 reveals women's closer connection to the waged labour..."

Tags:montreal, paris on, fem wrkg class

Abstract
The paper looks at how Gabrielle Roy's "The Tin Flute" and Denyse Baillargeon's "Making Do" both deal with very similar issues and material: the lives and experiences of working-class individuals, and particularly women, in Montreal in the years of the Great Depression. The paper critically explores the impact of unemployment on working class families as represented in both texts, with a particular focus on the coping strategies of the families and how gender dynamic interrelated with this economic context. The paper shows how, with reference to at least these two examples of their respective genres, historical monographs and historical fiction can serve as admirable complements to explore and illustrate the full complexity of life in a particular historical period.

From the Paper
"Gabrielle Roy's "The Tin Flute" and Denyse Baillargeon's "Making Do" both deal with very similar issues and material: the lives and experiences of working-class individuals, and particularly women, in Montreal in the years of the Great Depression. This being said, both texts are radically distinct in that Roy's is a fictional narrative written in 1945, only several years after the events of her novel, while Baillargeon's is a historical monograph drawing upon both documentary history and the oral histories of a number of women who lived during the period, collected by the author a half century after the fact. This essay will critically..."

Tags:class, working, quebec

Abstract
This paper examines the so-called evolution of the concept of "juvenile delinquency" in late Victorian England. The object of the paper is to show that the notion of youth crime was considerably altered during this period--and has served as an exemplar of present-day systems.

From the Paper
"The notion that juvenile delinquency in particular and crimes committed by child and adolescents in general were separate from crimes committed by adults is considered a recent construct. In fact it was not until the first half of the the 19th century in England that such a notion first came about. A corollary to this was the idea that these types of crimes and criminals should be treated differently from hardened adult criminals..."

Tags:juvenile, delinquency, Victorian, England, birching, reformatory, Borstal, Gladstone, Committee

Abstract
The paper argues that there is no single theory that fully explains the causes of nationalism. The paper explains the idea of nationalism and explores its causes and effects. The paper then shows how nationalism in the later half of the 19th century was caused by several different factors and had both national and global implications.

From the Paper
"As nationalism is a term that has many different meanings, the following paragraphs are committed to explaining the idea of nationalism as it will be used in this essay in order to avoid any confusion that may otherwise arise. Nationalism and nation are two terms inescapably linked and in order to understand what nationalism is, one must first have an understanding of what a nation is. Benedict Anderson, the emeritus of international studies at Cornell University described a nation as an imagined community of perceived equals who are loyal to that community. This is said in the sense that not everyone in the community will ever meet each other or even know of each other, but where a sense of community exists nevertheless and where people feel such a bond to that community that they are compelled to be loyal to it. It is important to note that a nation is not necessarily a state (a political unit), although a nation can be created from a state or vice versa."

Tags:nation-states, traditions, monuments, parades, liberalism, sovereignty, equality

Abstract
The paper discusses how women in general, not just African-American women, had little political clout following the Revolution, due to the Manifest Destiny move westward. The paper relates that it was only when abolitionists became visible and vocal and the slavery question threatened that African-American women, such as Harriet Tubman, became active and visible. The paper then shows how post-war, right through the beginning of the 20th century, black women tended to not only be active in various social, religious, economic and political organizations, but they served as "ambassadors" in place of black men, hamstrung by Jim Crow laws.

From the Paper
"African-American men who were not slaves counted only as three-fifths of a white citizen, according to the Constitutional Convention. Women of any color could not vote until the 19th Amendment was ratified in 1920. Yet, there were women of color who did act. Some acted out of frustration, others out of desperation, still others because of compassion. Yet, few if any women post-Revolutionary War and ante-bellum America thought of themselves as seeking power. It was merely to right wrongs- wrongs imposed on them and their families mostly by white men. Following the rightful establishments of the United States of America, the..."

Tags:slavery, abolition, womenaE(TM)s suffrage

Abstract
This essay examines how women in late nineteenth century America suffered gender discrimination. The vast majority were married by the time they were 29. Unlike earlier, however,a significant minority had earned wages before marriage. Many more earned money while they were married taking in borders or washing clothes. These earnings gave them a degree of power still sorely lacking in the political sphere.

From the Paper
"One has only look at the Declaration of Sentiments issued at the end of The Seneca Falls Convention of 1848 for historical proof that women were treated as second class citizens in America in the latter half of the 19th century. If women were in fact treated legally, politically and socially as men's equals, there would have been no convention, no one hundred and fifty plus year feminist movement in America. Women may well have made only limited progress in the subsequent half century in elevating their status, but there is ample evidence that it was not for..."

Tags:women, late 19th century, america

Abstract
This paper analyzes how "The Age of Innocence" by Edith Wharton and "Washington Square" by Henry James depict the societal construct of the proper way for a woman to act, but also contrast the differences between male and female perceptions of proper feminine behavior. The paper discusses how the books show the idea that social customs were an important part of the late nineteenth century.

From the Paper
"Both of these novels support the idea that social customs were an important part of the late nineteenth century. The characters demonstrate that each person had a role to play based on social rank and gender. The male characters believe that the women should - and do - trust them completely with decisions about their lives, because they are not smart or logical enough to make the proper decisions for themselves. Wharton chooses to demonstrate that the women are safe within their roles, not because they need men to protect them, but because they can hide behind their domestic facade while subtly influencing the choices and actions of the men around them. James' commentary appears to be of the same mind as Wharton's. He illustrates that women do have the ability to think for themselves, though he pairs that assertion with a claim that if women speak their minds, they will continue to be disregarded because men will still believe that they know what is best. Wharton and James agree that for a late nineteenth century woman to have power beyond what the "woman's role" allows her, she must disguise her true actions by playing along."

Tags:gender, society, patriarchal

Abstract
This paper describes the era of industrialization when Russia began a period of sustained economic growth that many historians have interpreted as the product of a successful policy. The paper makes a case for other reasons, such as Russia's dramatic population increase combined with a small economic base, as well as increases in capital stock. The paper also proves that the relationship between policy and output is overstated.

From the Paper
"Russia's weakness and the significance of its failure to industrialize were exposed to the world during the Crimean War (1854-1856) and became the catalyst for a period of economic changes that accelerated towards the end of the 19th century. While Russia remained poor in relation to its European neighbors, significant economic progress was made between approximately 1880 and 1900. Though many of the reforms and policies instituted by the Russian government were designed to foster industrialization, the objectives of these policies were primarily political. Through a focus on domestic policy, the government hoped to modernize the army and raise the Tsar's international prestige and influence, both of which continued to be reduced by events since the Crimean War. The political impetus behind industrialization and Russia's unique circumstances (autocracy, its size, chronic fiscal deficits, etc.) shaped the process in unique ways. Industrialization came much later, was generally more uneven and led to less political reform than in other European countries. Russia's goal was to retake its "rightful" place among Europe's Great Powers, not necessarily lift its citizenry out of the quagmire of poverty."

Tags:railroads, russian, witte

From the Paper
"The years following the Civil War ushered in the modern era of cities. It was during the half century between the Civil War and World War I that the move from the country to the city took place. In 1860, less than a quarter of the American population lived in a city or town; by 1890 the figure had reached a third; by 1910, nearly half.

The urbanization of late 19th century America took place at a staggering pace. Chicago, for example, doubled its population every decade but one between 1850 and 1890, growing from 30,000 to over a million in little more than a generation. Los Angeles jumped from less than 5,000 in 1860 to more than 100,000 in 1900, and Denver from nothing at all to 134,000, while Memphis with 23,000 in the earlier year exceeded 100,000 in the latter. In the nation as a whole, the proportion of people living in towns ... "