Abstract This paper examines the theories of Anna Wierzbicka and her use of a "metalanguage" in order to solve the ambiguities and culture-contextual problems inherent in language. The paper argues the absurdity of Wierzbicka's theory.
From the Paper "In her piece, "Speech Acts and Speech Genres Across Languages and Cultures", Anna Wierzbicka attempts to construct a 'metalanguage' for linguists to define foreign terms and concepts. (1992) This metalanguage, as it was proposed, would eliminate the ambiguity of using culturally loaded words when attempting to define speech acts, genres, and events in other languages. While her initial premise concerning culturally loaded text was intriguing; the attempted creation of a pseudo-scientific 'metalanguage' was not only absurd, but also defied her own initial discussion on the specific cultural context of speech acts."
Tags:language, linguistics, proto, speech, wierzbicka, anna, matalanguage, culture
Abstract This paper discusses the purpose of language in a socially constructed world. It discusses language acquisition, its limitations and benefits, and the consequences of language for individuals and society.
Abstract This paper explores the notion of identity through various viewpoints in contemporary modernity. This paper explores the way language, power and culture shapes the concept of the I by examining Foucaldian concepts, lingual construction and cultural studies.
From the Paper "With the impending future of global culture, the way in which the concept of the ?I? is constructed through an inter-connective culture becomes more obvious, since it affects the process through which the world consistently enriches itself through individual interaction with contemporary society. The concept of ?I? as an identity, fuelled by a wide range of philosophical, lingual and cultural discourses, can be seen as an interactive system inseparable with subjectivity, or, as Giddens proposes, a narrative which is able to build up a consistency of biographical continuity (1991; 75). In these terms is possible to view identity as a personal collective project, influenced by the light of circumstance, self-reflexivity and interaction. These elements, inherently produced through the social facets of power, language and culture, form the basis to the perception of "me" as both socially as well as privately constructed. To comprehend this nature of identity as a construction of these facets, then, it is crucial to analyze the way in which power, language and culture interact and serve as the sociological truism in which the ?I? is understood, through social roles, discourses and disciplines exploring the perception of the self as a cultural product."
Abstract This paper deals with the importance of language in the formation and establishment of a gay identity. It first follows Foucault's argument (language is a place of power where social norms are constructed) and then tries to identify how language can be subverted so that gays can reassess their own sense of identity.
From the Paper "So as to fully comprehend how a 'same-sex attracted' person can establish his/her own identity as s/he feels and senses it, we first need to see how language works, especially for those who do not seem to belong to the 'mainstream'. Indeed, what are at work within language are relations of power. What can thus be witnessed is the cultural, social and linguistic domination of one group over another. It seems that, from the beginning of humanity, men are the ones who dominate and it has been proven by feminists that women have been maintained under a linguistic yoke, among others. Suffice to think of the host of derogatory terms that can be used against women. And if we turn to 'homosexuals', we note the same phenomenon. An identity, i.e. a category, is created as less powerful - through the use of language as a system of representation - for heterosexual (men) to maintain their position of power. "
Tags: discrimination, oppression, Foucault, social, construction
Abstract This paper reviews and discusses construction grammar. According to the paper, construction grammar (CxG) is a usage-based framework, and it endeavors to treat all types of expressions as equally central to capturing grammatical patterning.
Outline:
Fillmore's approach to Construction Grammar
More cognitive approaches to Construction Grammar
Towards a "Fluid" Construction Grammar
From the Paper "A. Radical Construction Grammar (Croft): all constructions are language-specific; all categories are defined by constructions; constructions are the primitive units of language. This kind of CxG takes into account cross-linguistic factors, dealing with the internal structure of constructions. Radical CxG is non-reductionist: constructions are not derived from their parts, but the parts are derived from the constructions. Radical CxG is opposed to the idea that syntactic categories, roles, and relations are universal. Moreover, they are not only language-specific, but also construction-specific. Instead of syntactic relations, Radical CxG rather talks about semantic relations. Indeed, it is closely related to cognitive linguistics."
Abstract The paper studies the pattern of ideas and analysis contained in the essay and then discusses how the style of language used in the argument affects the content of that argument. The writer also looks at the degree of persuasiveness that the argument has and the degree of difficulty that this presents for the reader of the essay.
From the Paper "The content of the essay is a combination of Williams's analysis of these issues in abstract terms plus a series of anecdotes, from personal experience, of how that analysis reaches meaning. The anecdotes illustrate how deep racial hatred goes in a supposedly prejudice-free society when the structure of that society, from the lowest to the highest levels of sensitivity and education, gives moral weight and moral authority to assumptions made about individuals whose identity is not that of the dominant racial group (therefore probably black) and not the dominant population within any group (therefore probably female). The anecdotes relate mainly to an incident when Williams was denied entry into an exclusive department store (Benetton's) because she was black. But it turned out that she was also denied the opportunity to tell her story from her point of view, as she found when she had problems getting that story published. In other words, race prejudice is not dead just because there are laws on the books against it. Not only that, race prejudice shows up in big ways and small ways in everyday life."
Tags: argument, construction, prejudice, ideology, language
Abstract This paper explains that communicative competence is made up of four competence areas: Linguistic, which is knowing how to use the language's grammar, syntax and vocabulary; sociolinguistic, knowing how to use and respond to language appropriately; discourse, knowing how to interpret the larger context and to construct a coherent whole and strategic, knowing how to recognize and repair communication breakdowns by working around gaps in one's knowledge of the language. The author points out that communicative language teaching (CLT) began because educators and linguists were dissatisfied with the audiolingual and grammar-translation methods of foreign language instruction. The paper stresses that communicative language teaching places great emphasis on helping students use the target language in a variety of contexts and places great emphasis on learning language functions.
Table of Contents
Communicative Competence
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
Principles and Characteristics of CLT
Communicative Activities
Teacher's Roles in Communicative Language Teaching
Implementation of CLT in ESL and EFL Countries
From the Paper "Other research studies focus on the difficulty attributed to the English as a first language environment. In 1996, studies by Stapleton pointed out how Confucianism as a belief system appears to be in tension with underlying notions of communicative language teaching. In these studies, Stapeton examined the theory that Confucianism establishes the superior status and knowledge of the teacher over that of the students, thus elevating the role of the teacher above the students. In 1998, Li studied teaching and learning in China, concluding that local conditions seem to be detrimental to communicative language teaching methodology."
Abstract This paper contends that, as a result of the ever expanding
globalization process, and with an understanding of the place that English currently holds as the lingua-franca used in international and intercultural communication settings, there is an immediate need to modify, or in some cases scrap previously relied upon second and foreign language teaching methodologies employed in language instruction around the world. According to the paper, a new, more holistic approach to language learning and teaching is needed to better foster understanding across cultures and allow for more mutually beneficial intercultural communication. The paper supports this contention through an examination of the shortcomings of contemporary and past language instruction and through an examination of intercultural language teaching and its techniques. The paper concludes with a personal reflection by the other on her teaching experiences in Japan and Korea.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
The Shortcomings of Contemporary and Past Language Instruction
Intercultural Language Teaching
ILT Instruction Techniques
How Can Research Inform Language Teaching
Reflections on Teaching Methodology and Personal Experiences
From the Paper "Viewing culture in this way allows students to realize the connections between culture and individual behavior. Previously invisible and inaccessible culture becomes tangible, and students can come to understand how culture acts as a blueprint for individual behavior. They see a social construct in which the individual has choices that may be differentially appropriate in different social contexts. This approach allows students to relativise their own beliefs, behaviors and values, and see that there are many possible cultural constructs"
Abstract This paper explains that American Sign Language (ASL) involves home signs that resemble the objects, which they are meant to indicate. The author points out that, like any other language, ASL has its abbreviations, slang and contractions, often used by omitting full signs when fluent persons are conversing, especially in groups of persons known to one another. The paper stresses that ASL is a dynamic, evolving language that responds to cultural and environmental changes. The author underscores that the inventors of the prime ASL symbols and gestures could not imagine the impact of the Internet or various technology-assisted devices now available to persons who cannot hear or speak as others do.
From the Paper "ASL includes symbols and actions that are just as arbitrary as spoken language. When consulting a person fluent in ASL, she noted that with many people having become fluent in the language over time and with the particular ways in which ASL was taught, some 'shortcuts' or abbreviations had become usual, understood by deaf persons with whom she spoke or when observing third persons communicate in ASL who were not deaf. Some symbols refer obviously to the objects or actions they represent but others are just customary, ... "
Abstract This paper describes commercial construction as "building projects exclusive of residential construction," and discusses commercial construction from both an economic point of view and from the point of view of the community. The paper discusses why commercial construction is a boon to the construction business, providing stable work even when residential construction is at a lull. The paper also discusses the complexities of managing commercial construction.
From the Paper "Commercial construction is defined as "building projects exclusive of residential [single- or two-family home] construction". It is one of the biggest segments of the entire construction industry and is believed to have strengthened the industry in recent years due to rapid and steady growth. The commercial sector has been growing steady for some time now as is evident from market research and reports. Back in 2000, Sinderman wrote: "...the state of the commercial real estate market is strong. The demand for office, industrial and retail buildings remains high, and, as Internet-based companies continue to grow, specialized facilities have become more popular than ever." In 2005, a construction report by McGraw-Hill supported that claim: "The commercial and infrastructure construction segments are providing a lift to the overall construction industry, marking a role reversal from most of the past two or three years. According to October 2004 figures for future construction contracts calculated by McGraw-Hill Construction, Lexington, Mass., overall new construction starts increased 4 percent in October versus September (on a seasonally adjusted basis), with nonresidential and infrastructure construction gaining while the residential sector fell slightly." (Late Rebound)"
Tags: commercial, construction, residential, business, office, hotel
Abstract Federal contracts for construction, while similar in many respects to other types of federal contracts, have some unique aspects that have caused the federal government to create a system of rules within the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) specific to construction contracts. The federal government has been justified in creating these rules separate from those that apply specifically to supply and service contracts. This paper focuses on some of the unique rules and regulations that apply to federal construction contracts, including those related to contract types, labor laws, specifications, payments, delays, and differing site conditions.
Abstract
Overview
Contract Types
Federal Construction Contracting Laws
Contract Performance and Specifications
Payment Financing
Delays
Differing Site Conditions
References
From the Paper "The federal government is the largest owner of real property in the world (Bastianelli, et. al., 1998), so it stands to reason that they spend an enormous amount of money on construction and maintenance of that property. It is difficult to gauge exactly how much the federal government spends on construction annually, but it is noteworthy that the Department of Defense alone planned to award over $10 billion on construction contracts in 2002 (Bush, 2001). Because of this significant amount of construction outsourcing, and the intricacies that go along with construction contracting, the federal government has been justified in developing unique regulations and rules for construction contracts. The federal government, in the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR), defines construction as, ?"construction, alteration, or repair (including dredging, excavating, and painting) of buildings, structures, or other real property"? (FAR 2.101). Determining whether or not something is considered a building or a structure is general straightforward, although there are always exceptions. However, the line defining whether or not something is real property can, at times, be somewhat unclear. The FAR does not provide a definition for real property, but in federal contracts the common legal definition is used, that real property is, ?"land and all things that are attached to it"? (Lectric Law Library, 2003). Though many of the clauses, terms and conditions, and rules applicable to federal construction contracts are the same, or similar, to those that are used on federal contracts for supplies, there are a number of differences in the nature of contracting for construction that have caused the federal government to create separate laws that deal specifically with federal construction contracts. One of the major differences is that construction contracts are performed on Government property. Because of this, construction contractors are subject to a great deal more in the area of inspections and general surveillance on their contracts (Abernathy and Kelleher, 1976). Construction contracts typically have much more paperwork than federal supply contracts. On construction contracts, a contractor is required to file daily reports showing that they complied with all the unique construction regulations, including safety, schedules, and submittals of material samples (Arnavas, 2001, ?? 27.4.a.). Construction contracts are subject to much greater scrutiny on performance than supply contracts, as detailed analysis and explanation of any deficiencies are reported to contractors and contractors have the right to respond. Past performance information is also kept on construction contracts for six years, where the norm on supply contracts is three years (Arnavas, 2001, ?? 27.4.a). Other differences that will be the focus of this paper include contract types, labor laws, specifications, payments, delays, and differing site conditions."
Abstract This paper discusses green building construction and points out that this design saves energy as well as money. The paper explains that green building construction is vital and is a determinative of project success. The paper also explains that the individual needs to take the initiative in addressing construction design and development and associated costs as well as funding, marketing and sales. In addition, the paper tells us that green building construction holds great financial promise for the future. A graph of taxes by state is included with the paper.
Outline:
Objective
Introduction
Significance of study
Methodology
Literature Review
Findings and Conclusion
From the Paper "The work of Andrew Meyerson (2005) entitled: "The Dollars and Cents of Green Construction" states that green construction and design can not only save energy but also can result in monetary savings in the areas of: (1) Tax breaks and rebates; (2) Lower construction costs; (3) Reduction or elimination of the need for heating and air-conditioning equipment and the associated costs of purchase, maintenance and electricity; (4) Reduction in energy and water bills by as much as fifty-percent; (5) Increase in labor productivity, retail customer sales and apartment rental prices; and (6) Protection of operating budgets from increases in energy prices. (Meyerson, 2005, p. 2) Meyerson relates that practically all states offer incentives in the form of reduction of taxes for construction that is friendly to the environment. (2005, p. 4) Additionally in green construction projects where a pre-existing structure is on the construction site, cost savings may be realized through reuse of as much of the existing structure as possible. Additionally, is it necessary to be aware of the attitudes that serve as drivers of the choice of clients to use the firm and added to this is the fact "that commercial 'green buildings' outperform their conventional counterparts across a wide variety of metrics, including energy savings, occupancy rates, sale price and rental rates, another very practical and often times overlooked data for improving the cash flow of the client is the "energy efficient commercial building tax deductions.""
Tags: green, building, construction, funding, marketing, save, money, energy
Abstract This article serves as a defense of the claim that race is a social construct, rather than a biological fact. The writer discusses the view that genetic inequalities are not inborn, but rather created by society. In this paper, the writer looks at inequality in society caused by differences in race that appear to have been constructed by society.
From the Paper "The argument that race is a genetic predisposition is an old one and certainly an important one as it has been practiced among governments and other such institutions for centuries. This argument however leads to unwanted implications of genetic inequality between the races that we have learned is simply not the case. There are no inherent differences between individual races that are not arbitrarily constructed by society. In fact, it seems apparent that there are more variations in appearance and personality within a single race ... "
The following paper examines the theories of bilingualism and multilingalism, language acquisition and language learning, making reference to a number of case studies.
Abstract The following paper examines the theories on language acquisition and looks at the useful distinction between acquisition and learning. The writer also comments on approaches and methods to teaching second and foreign languages. Lastly the writer comments on interference as a factor in language learning.
Table of Contents
Bilingualism and Multilingualism
Diglossia
First Language Acquisition
Using a text-mapping device to depict the important stages in first-language acquisition
Theories on how language is acquired
Innateness
Cognition
Input
Approaches and methods to teaching second and foreign languages Interference as a factor in language learning.
From the Paper "Diglossia is the coexistence of two forms of the same language in speech community. The one form will often be the literary or prestige dialect, and the other one can be a dialect commonly spoken by most of the population. The term diglossia could also be used to indicate bilingualism, or the speaking of two languages by the people of the same community. An example for the first definition is the use of Dutch in Belgium. Dutch is one of the official languages in Belgium. Dutch-speaking Belgians are called the "Flemish" where the French-speaking Belgians are called "Walloons". Dutch spoken by Belgians is also referred to as "Flemish", which is not a literary form of the language, but a spoken "dialect". They are different varieties of the same language."
Abstract This paper examines the criteria for measuring early language development, the concepts associated with ascertaining a child's developmental progress, the research supporting the prevailing theories and the significant findings inherent in credible research in these areas. It discusses how all over the globe young children seem to effortlessly acquire two or more languages at one time, while some uphold the belief that children who are exposed to multiple languages too early may experience developmental language delays and/or confusion. It evaluates how scientific research has attempted to examine whether young bilinguals can ascertain that they are acquiring two separate and distinct languages early on.
Outline
Introduction
Research and Analysis
Bilingual Paradox
Bilingual Deficit Hypothesis
Unitary Language System Hypothesis
Bilingual Advantage Hypothesis
Differentiated Language System Hypothesis
Vocabulary Development
The MacArthur CDI
Linguistic Milestones
Lexical Identifiers
Neutrals
Translation Equivalents
Interlocutor Sensitivity
Language Choice
Codemixing
Parental Discourse Strategies
Early Constraints
Conclusion
Bibliography
From the Paper "The line of thought that resembles popular opinion about whether or not children should be raised bilingual from birth is called the "Bilingual Paradox". It is a paradox because there are conflicting contemporary theories about whether or not it is the preferred method of introducing two languages. While much research shows that, by several measures, children who are exposed to two languages simultaneously between the ages of zero and three achieve major milestones within the same timeframe and with similar results as monolinguals, the contemporary line of thought has been to teach a child one language early on, reserving the introduction of a second language for the later school years. The thinking associated with the latter opinion is that introducing two languages early on will confuse the child, or that the child will be disadvantaged in mastery of one or both languages. There are, however, steps parents can take early on based on proven research to give their child an advantage in learning language skills. Methodologies, tools, timing mechanisms and support strategies have been developed through testing and observation that aids children in successful and timely language development, specifically in the adoption of multiple languages."
