Abstract This paper explains that communicative competence is made up of four competence areas: Linguistic, which is knowing how to use the language's grammar, syntax and vocabulary; sociolinguistic, knowing how to use and respond to language appropriately; discourse, knowing how to interpret the larger context and to construct a coherent whole and strategic, knowing how to recognize and repair communication breakdowns by working around gaps in one's knowledge of the language. The author points out that communicative languageteaching (CLT) began because educators and linguists were dissatisfied with the audiolingual and grammar-translation methods of foreign language instruction. The paper stresses that communicative languageteaching places great emphasis on helping students use the target language in a variety of contexts and places great emphasis on learning language functions.
Table of Contents
Communicative Competence
Communicative LanguageTeaching (CLT)
Principles and Characteristics of CLT
Communicative Activities
Teacher's Roles in Communicative LanguageTeaching Implementation of CLT in ESL and EFL Countries
From the Paper "Other research studies focus on the difficulty attributed to the English as a first language environment. In 1996, studies by Stapleton pointed out how Confucianism as a belief system appears to be in tension with underlying notions of communicative language teaching. In these studies, Stapeton examined the theory that Confucianism establishes the superior status and knowledge of the teacher over that of the students, thus elevating the role of the teacher above the students. In 1998, Li studied teaching and learning in China, concluding that local conditions seem to be detrimental to communicative language teaching methodology."
Abstract In this study, the writer's three beliefs about languageteaching are discussed. The writer also identifies possible constraints that affect putting these beliefs into practice and evaluates whether these constraints can be overcome. The writer maintains that the teacher's beliefs about languageteaching reflect the attitudes toward different types of teaching approaches and the constraints affect the teaching practice. According to the writer, establishing a link between beliefs and practice offers a number of implications for languageteaching practitioners that might help to improve their attitudes, methods, and approach.
Outline:
Introduction
Teaching Environment
Teacher as a Motivator
Lessons Should Be Interactive
LanguageTeaching is Culture Teaching Constraints
Conclusions
From the Paper "In most cases, the setting contributes to the way in which language is taught depending on availability of resources, types of tests, value of the language and so forth. Therefore, it is necessary to outline my teaching environment before going any further. As a tutor of Japanese, I have been teaching intermediate level oral and written Japanese to college students ranging in age from 18 to 25 in New Zealand since the beginning of 2007. Teaching involves approximately five hours a week in classroom and the classrooms are adequate for the average class size, which is between ten and fifteen, with equipment for presenting visual materials. The university has a language laboratory and a very small collection of books written in Japanese. Course materials consist of the set textbook, which can be classified as predominately a situational based syllabus with a functional syllabus, and the accompany workbook. Not many other supplementary teaching materials are available so teachers are encouraged to prepare their own materials."
Abstract The foreign language requirement has long been a component of formal education. The paper shows that several different methods exist for teaching foreign languages, including submersion and various levels of immersion teaching. In addition, foreign languageteaching can be either language-driven or content-driven. This paper compares and contrasts the different methods of teaching foreign languages through immersion and submersion.
From the Paper "The language programs of the United States are based on Canadian French-language programs developed in the 1960's (Fortune and Tedick par. 3). Immersion, when used in teaching foreign languages, is the process of teaching the student using the language being taught for all or most of the school day."
Abstract This paper discusses ten traditional methods of languageteaching in detail, describing the principles of each and how they help both teachers and students to teach, understand, learn, and practice all the skills they learn through these approaches.
From the Paper "Grammar Translation Method
This method involves the learner to spend a lot of time in understanding the language structure. Though both listening as well as speaking suffer because of it. However, grammar and vocabulary are being stressed throughout the teaching method.
The grammar translation method has been derived from traditional approaches to the teaching of Latin and Greek in the nineteenth century (Selected Lesson Plans). It was originally used to teach 'dead' languages as well as literatures for instance Latin and Greek, and was accounted for its heavy bias towards written work to the virtual leaving out of oral production. However, its main features are as follow (Kitao):
-A careful analysis of the target written language, particularly its grammar.
-The Grammar rules are presented and learned clearly
-From bilingual word lists, vocabulary is learned
-A paramount use of translation exercises
-The medium of instruction is mother tongue
-Less or no attention is paid to speaking and listening skills."
Abstract This paper contends that, as a result of the ever expanding
globalization process, and with an understanding of the place that English currently holds as the lingua-franca used in international and intercultural communication settings, there is an immediate need to modify, or in some cases scrap previously relied upon second and foreign languageteaching methodologies employed in language instruction around the world. According to the paper, a new, more holistic approach to language learning and teaching is needed to better foster understanding across cultures and allow for more mutually beneficial intercultural communication. The paper supports this contention through an examination of the shortcomings of contemporary and past language instruction and through an examination of intercultural languageteaching and its techniques. The paper concludes with a personal reflection by the other on her teaching experiences in Japan and Korea.
Table of Contents:
Introduction
The Shortcomings of Contemporary and Past Language Instruction
Intercultural LanguageTeaching ILT Instruction Techniques
How Can Research Inform LanguageTeaching Reflections on Teaching Methodology and Personal Experiences
From the Paper "Viewing culture in this way allows students to realize the connections between culture and individual behavior. Previously invisible and inaccessible culture becomes tangible, and students can come to understand how culture acts as a blueprint for individual behavior. They see a social construct in which the individual has choices that may be differentially appropriate in different social contexts. This approach allows students to relativise their own beliefs, behaviors and values, and see that there are many possible cultural constructs"
Abstract The paper discusses how integrating different languageteaching methods will have the benefit of catering to a wide variety of student needs; something that a single approach will probably not accomplish. The paper explores the methods of teaching the Slavic language to students where the proficiency level is basically non-existent. The paper selects nine different languageteaching methods and determines which are most appropriate for such a languageteaching course and also how they can be integrated to achieve optimal results. The paper's information for all the teaching approaches is derived from Dr. Jill Kerper Mora.
Outline:
Total Physical Response
The Grammar Translation Method
The Audio Lingual Method
The Communicative Approach
The Functional Notional Method
The Direct Approach
The Reading Approach
The Silent Way
The Community Language Learning Method
Conclusion
From the Paper "Globalization and the concept of the "global village", has brought about interesting developments in language teaching. It is currently recognized, for example, that contact with one or more natives from foreign countries during an average lifetime is more likely than not. Furthermore, the information age entails that knowledge from across the globe is integrated in the academic world. This implies that not all academic texts will be in English, and that some foreign language skills are necessary to access texts in certain fields. Finally, businesses generally offer expanded opportunities to those who are willing to relocate to foreign countries. The success of such ventures often depends upon an ability to communicate with the target country's native population. The question is therefore not so much whether foreign languages in a curriculum are important, but rather how they should be taught."
Abstract The paper discusses three principles of M. Rost on effective instruction for listening skills. The paper focuses on aptitude specific instruction, coordination of teaching and learning and a positive climate for learning, and critically evaluates them in light of the writer's own languageteaching and learning experiences. The paper shows how all these principles have some positive implications for effective language instruction. The paper notes, however, that these principles cannot be implemented successfully without restructuring and reconsidering currently existing institutional systems and instructional goals.
Outline:
Introduction
Aptitude Specific Instruction
Coordination of teaching and learning
Positive climate for learning
Conclusion
From the Paper "In most cases, the setting contributes to the way in which language is taught. Therefore, it is necessary to outline my language teaching environment to evaluate the principles in relation to my own experience. I have been teaching intermediate level Japanese approximately five hours a week to college students ranging in age from 18 to 25 in New Zealand since the beginning of 2007. The classrooms are adequate for the average class size, which is between ten and fifteen, with equipment for visual materials. Course materials consist of the set textbook and the accompanying workbook, and not many other supplementary teaching materials are available. Also as a language learner myself, I studied English as a second language at school in Japan for six years."
Abstract This paper discusses that it is possible as well as beneficial to combine focus on form with focus on meaning in English languageteaching. The writer examines two studies from an output enhancement point of view. The first, by Kowal and Swain (1997) experimented, in a French immersion classroom, with two tasks that were intended to assist learners in moving from semantic processing to syntactic processing. The second, Doughty and Varela (1998) experimented with corrective recast (i.e., repetition and recast) in an ESL content-based classroom.
From the Paper "The history of second language teaching has witnessed changing perceptions of corrective feedback (Celce-Murcia, 1991). Views on the role of corrective feedback can be highly diverse, even polarized. The Audiolingual Approach, for example, advocates minimal or no tolerance of learner errors and suggests that every effort be made to prevent them. On the other hand, the Natural Approach considers error correction unnecessary and counterproductive. The latter view is also shared notably by the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach that has come to dominate second language classrooms since the early 1970s."
Abstract This paper presents a case study that outlines key features of the author's situation teaching Japanese to different levels and varying abilities. The paper then implements selected solutions to the situation and critically evaluates the solutions and stages of inquiry.
Outline:
Introduction
The Issue
The Situation and Problem
Dealing with the Problem
Possible Solutions
Choosing the Solutions
Implementing the Solutions
Evaluating the Solutions
Reflecting on the Procedures
Conclusion
From the Paper "Although second language instruction that matches the learner's proficiency level and ability seems to be effective as it provides an opportunity to scaffold the learner's linguistic development, the majority of foreign language classes involve students of different levels and varying abilities. They differ in not only their immediate performance ability but also their potential learning ability as well. Some students are able to cope with new grammar and vocabulary they have just learned in the previous class but others are still struggling with those they learned at the beginning of the course. The issue of teaching mixed ability groups has become apparent when organising activities that are effective for different levels and abilities of learners in a single classroom. "
Abstract Infants and very small children are extremely receptive of almost all forms of learning. For many years, it was the practice to begin foreign language training at the high school level. However, research suggests that children who begin bilingual education at the pre-school level are the most effective language learners. This paper explains that the myths of dual language acquisition have largely been found to be false: learning more than one language does not lead to confusion or disorders in the learner. The paper also discusses the benefits that occur when bilingual education is begun at a very early age.
Abstract In this article the writer discusses that unlike teaching a student how to diagram a cell in biology class or how to deconstruct a poem in English class, the aim of foreign language education is not simply to teach students how to learn, but to impart a functional skill. This is especially true in English as a Second Language (ESL) education, where the students are acquiring a language that may become their primary language in their education or in their workplace. The writer points out that it is critical that students acquire language vocabulary that is likely to be useful for them in their daily lives, and that the students are quickly immersed in the language in a way that replicates their exposure to the language in daily life. In this paper, the writer looks at the communicative languageteaching (CLT) approach, which stresses the fact that students learn to communicate through the action of communicating without merely learning about communicating in that language.
From the Paper "Unlike a purely structuralist approach to teaching language that stresses learning foreign grammar structures in isolated and often unnatural ways, the technique of language content-based immersion exposes students to a new language in a holistic fashion. Even a successful structuralist method, such as the audiolingual method, in which the foreign language lessons are arranged on grammatical principles but in which the students are not responsible for any metalanguage tends to isolate grammatical principles from one another in a way that is not commensurate with how students are exposed to language in the lived environment outside of the classroom, and also tends to isolate acquiring vocabulary through intuition from correct grammatical usage. In contrast, communicative orientation in language teaching, with a student-focused perspective, is more evident in a content-based immersion approach. Such an approach encourages students use new expressions to impart their desired meaning in a way that enables them to truly communicate what they want to say in a given situation, rather than replicate the language patterns of a teacher by rote. A communication-focused approach also breaks down possible inhibitions about using the second language and making mistakes, as sometimes the English language is not even the main focus of the classroom, merely communicating something interesting about another subject."
Abstract This paper looks at how there is no best way to teachlanguage and how many methods have been adapted and modified throughout the years to find what style best accommodates the need of the learner. It shows that when teachinglanguage, it is imperative that the teacher provides a safe and comfortable learning environment and treats language learning as a social process where comprehensible input is a must when expecting comprehensible output from the students. It explores three methods used to teachlanguage acquisition, the natural approach, communicative languageteaching and grammar translation. It outlines each method and includes a discussion of the various techniques utilized for that method. It will also compares while contrasting the three methods and focuses on the various needs of the student.
From the Paper "The linguistic part of human communication is only a part of the total picture that humans use to relay messages to each other. ?At least one applied linguist has gone so far as to claim that, "We communicate so much information non-verbally in conversations that often the verbal aspect of the conversation is negligible" (Rodgers, 2001). Even with all of the body language that is involved with communication, language teaching has chosen to restrict its attention to the linguistic element of human communication, even when the approach is labeled Communicative. The methodological proposal is to provide instructional focus on the non-linguistic aspects of communication, which includes rhythm, speed, pitch, intonation, tone, and hesitation phenomena in speech and gesture, facial expression, posture, and distance in non-verbal messaging. When using the Communicative Language method, the teacher's role is to act as a needs analyst and task designer while the learner is in the roles of improviser and negotiator."
This paper discusses the application of Vivian Cook's second language user model to the acquisition of pragmatic competence in the teaching of second languages.
Abstract This paper explains that the theory of multi-competence, developed and advocated by Vivian Cook, states that a human mind is potentially capable of possessing the linguistic competence of more than one language; thus, multilingual speakers are the norm. The author points out that, in terms of languageteaching, the model of multi-competence can be applied mainly for an acquisition of sufficient grammatical competence, which apart from general data provision can be achieved through the setting of parameters. The paper relates that, since the primary goal of languageteaching is to create successful L2 speakers, the teaching of pragmatic competence in a language should include cultural and inter-cultural studies, cognitive training and general input in that language.
From the Paper "Yet it is important to point out that the way these two grammars co-exist in the same mind also implies its mutual interference and interdependence: at a certain level of acquisition, the two grammars must form a single language system rather than two separated systems. Thus, multi-competent state of mind represents, in fact, not a mere combination of two monolingual systems but rather a single language system, which can be described as an indivisible linguistic unity. This statement can serve as an explanation for the fact that the vast majority of the second language (L2) learners even on the advanced level are not able to produce language in the same way the native speakers do, since the multilingual language users have several interrelated languages in mind: In short the state of mind of a multilingual language user is just different from that of a monolingual."
Abstract This paper owes to different formal and individual explorations of language arts approaches and methods including work towards a language arts portfolio, an exercise helping to recognize the vast range of materials available to Canadian teachers, at large, in relation to their adopted philosophies of teaching. The writer maintains that a guiding study that has promoted much thought on the overall goals of language arts instruction has been Think Literacy Success, a Government of Ontario report on approaches to promoting literacy at the Grades 7 to 12 levels which emphasizes gaps in abilities and opportunities, student groups especially at risk, and the overall role of language arts in seeing that students are prepared to communicate well in society. The writer notes that it seems important to think through the environment in which one will teach with central Canada offering unique challenges of diversity less pronounced in regions beyond the main cities. In the same spirit, The writer discusses that teachers serving isolated impoverished or otherwise limited communities of less heterogeneity need to find approaches to an overall ideal of instilling interest and skill.
Outline:
Introduction
Portfolio Tasks
Reflection on Professional Development
Mechanics of Portfolio and Teaching Development
Bottom Up Model of Reading
Professional Development Goals
Future Activities
Concluding Remarks
From the Paper "Various course and seminar offerings now exist that are geared to language arts teachers. In addition, there is an ever-growing literature of research on the subjects of literacy, factors impeding literacy and language development, curriculum design and teaching pedagogy. However, one needs to aim to for practical experience which should be diverse. For example, attending classes for second language learners in a Board of Education setting is different from tutoring adult learners in basic literacy having been involved in the criminal justice system. When watching very experienced language arts teachers at work one sees the results of perhaps many years given to students of different kinds, in perhaps several school systems, and more than one country. Teachers can appreciate to varying degrees what colleagues educated elsewhere can impart, especially those having served abroad and perhaps in educational systems requiring English-medium instruction for students of diverse first languages. Education does seem a profession in which the teacher is forever meeting individuals from whom learning is possible. The same can be said of students, and what is suddenly discovered in some in terms of a hidden ability, another language spoken, or the ability to illustrate written work."
Abstract This paper reviews the different teaching methods and strategies for increasing young children's language skills. Of all the various teaching options available, this paper focuses on two particular methods: the Mand-Model Procedure and the delayed language programs.
From the Paper "There are several ways that language can be increased in young children, using particular teaching strategies. Some of these are as follows. Diagnostic-prescriptive approaches, including the process or ability model and the task analysis model; performance-oriented approaches, including imitating and modeling of correct communication behaviours; interpersonal-interactive approaches; syntax-based programs, including the Language Assessment, Remediation and Screening Procedures (LARSP), the Fokes Sentence Builder and the Sound Order Sense (SOS); delayed language programs; and the Mand-Model Procedure. (Winzer, 1999) "
