Abstract The paper discusses the attrition and retention of languages. In the paper, attrition refers to a gradual or marked loss of the understanding ,or the ability to converse and communicate, in a language. The paper examines languageretention, which is the way that language is acquired and maintained. The paper further examines the way that this retention is affected by various linguistic, socio-linguistic and psychological factors.
From the Paper "Another theory that is encountered in the literature on second language learning is the Frequency of Use theory. The theory refers to the view that things learn best are most often retained. A study by de Bot, Gommans, and Rossing (1991) of Dutch learners in a French environment found that language attrition was related to the amount of contact that the Dutch learners had with other people who spoke their language in the French environment. "They discovered that the length of time away from the Netherlands would not cause attrition for this generation of immigrants if they had many regular first language contacts."
Abstract The paper outlines research that will demonstrate the need to analyze existing data and formulate new research on foreign languageretention, why it occurs on a post-secondary level and what obstacles contribute to increased or reduced retention in foreign language programs. The paper first reviews the literature and discusses the methodology to be used. The paper then shows that if the system becomes more open to communication style teaching through collaboration and other learning/teaching styles, and technology in learning is adaptive and appropriate, the post-secondary foreign language academy will likely improve retention and retain diversity. The paper highlights the need for mor research in this area of foreign language study in post-secondary systems.
Outline:
Introduction
Statement of Problem
Review of Literature
Methodology
Conclusion
From the Paper "As the culture in which we live becomes increasingly diverse and highly focused on globalization, concepts of foreign language teaching and learning at all levels of education become much more important. (Gerwin & Osborn, 2002, p. 80) (Whitt, Edison, Pascarella, Terenzini & Nora, 2001, p. 172) Yet, statistics of enrolment and success in post-secondary foreign language education do not seem to play out this growing necessity. "In recent years, the language-instruction profession has seen alarming declines in enrollment in languages other than Spanish .... " (Moser, 2001, p. 3) Creating systems that promote retention of individuals in foreign language learning programs at the post-secondary level is therefore crucial to the development of educators and individuals who are fully prepared for a multi-lingual community and work environment."
A critique on an article by K.S. Folse, called "The Effect of Type of Written Exercise on L2 Vocabulary Retention", which discusses word retention following vocabulary exercises.
Abstract This paper analyzes and critiques an article written by K.S. Folse which examines the variable effects of three different vocabulary exercises on word retention, based on a sample of ESL students enrolled in intensive language programs at American universities. The paper concludes by explaining the limitations of the study.
From the Paper "Implications for classroom practice are extensive. Teachers who base their vocabulary exercises and assessment tools on original sentences, based on the assumption that original sentences will lead to retention, may need to rethink their approach to TESOL. Folse (2006) adds that creating original sentences place undue time and energy demands on the students, which may detract from their actual ability to retain the word. Teachers also have to spend more time on grading original sentences, and poor grammar may impact grades without reflecting whether or not the student actually understood the target word. Writing sample sentences with the target words, teachers can create more meaningful and effective exams that are also easier to grade."
Abstract The paper examines the crisis in the hospitality industry with regard to recruitment and retention of employees. Several contributing factors to the recruitment and retention phenomenon are considered, such as increased diversity, the imbalance between skilled and unskilled labor and the nonexistent benefits, such as health insurance, profit sharing and retirement benefits. The author notes that management strategies are counterproductive and do not offer the employee real incentive to strive for achievement. The paper also addresses the issue of corporate responsibility for employees. The paper concludes with suggestions for employee retention in the hospitality industry.
Outline:
Introduction
Major Obstacles to Employee Retention Employee Retention Solutions
Conclusion
From the Paper "Several big name hostels are beginning to practice better diversity standards and seeking to create a better awareness among the public about the diversity and inherent interest in their employ. This trend will likely continue and it is hoped that it will continue to be a fruitful part of the development of individuals from varied nations, as assimilation is really a small part of immigration. Many more issues surround the struggles of immigration and diverse populations, many of which can only be answered by employment."
Abstract This paper takes a look at the idea of grade retention, a concept designed to improve the standard of education in the USA. The paper focuses on the state of Florida, which has implemented the grade retention system. According to the paper, students in Florida can now be kept back to repeat a year, rather than be promoted on the basis of 'social promotion' instead of academic readiness.
From the Paper "The rules for determining promotion between the third and forth grade in Florida are based largely on the students' performance on state standardized tests. (Reid) According to the Department of Education, Florida law now says that third graders that score low on the FCAT standardized test "must be retained, unless there is other information that indicates these students can read independently." (The New Department of Education) The tests are the key factor in the decision, however under certain circumstances parents can appeal decisions based on the test, however the appeal procedures and qualifying for promotion based on other means can be a difficult process. If a student performs poorly on the FCAT test, the teacher must be the one to create a portfolio of the child's work to demonstrate the ability to meet minimum performance standards. Unfortunately, convincing teachers and administrators to create such a portfolio may be difficult for parents, and virtually impossible for students without actively involved parental support. According to Mark Pudlow of the Florida Education Association, "Few educators considered portfolios to be a viable option...Only a small percentage of students are expected to be promoted based on their portfolio work." (Reid) In order to qualify for advancement to the next grade level without a passing FCAT score, a "good cause exemption" must be given. Students may qualify for a good cause exemption if the student speaks a limited amount of English, if the student has a disability and it is determined that it is not appropriate for the student to take the FCAT test, if the student can pass an alternate reading test called the SAT-9, if the student has been retained previously under special circumstances, or if the aforementioned portfolio is assembled and considered adequate. (The New Department of Education)"
This paper sheds light on some of the factors affecting employee retention and offers typical solutions, focusing specifically on the electronic systems industry.
Abstract The following paper examines the issue of employee retention and obtainment, which is an intensive struggle between employer and employee. Retaining and obtaining employees in today's economy is a constant campaign for the best and most deserving workers and thus this paper suggests ways of improving employee relations by improved communication, incentives, good benefits a pleasant office climate and more. The information contained within was compiled from literature found in public libraries abroad, third party investigations and personal observation.
From the Paper "During the 1990s, job seekers had a dizzying array of choices when they searched for work. It was a difficult task for employers to keep employees. Losing employees always meant losing knowledge, capital, skills, and experience (Watson, 2000). Losing knowledge was a major concern to organizations. If an organization lost an employee with a great amount of knowledge, it essentially lost revenue that the employee would have generated. If an employer lost an employee with a great amount of experience, it would take lots of time and money to retrain a new employee for positive production. Experience is an intangible that is relied up heavily. Every worker carries with him or her at least three basic types of experience. Every worker posesses a certain amount of industry, company, and position specific experience."
Abstract This is a literature review of research in the area of effective employee retention strategies for organizations. A number of online articles are discussed with various strategies.
Abstract This paper proposes a plan for promoting effective employee development and retention, touching on training, human capital management, a career development planning model, and an employee relations program.
From the Paper Employee Development and RetentionAbstract Employee development and retention are critical to an organization'sability to meet its goals and challenges and retain profitability Thispaper discusses the factors that affect employee development and retentio
Tags: employee development, retention, training, human capital, career development planning model, employee relations program
Abstract This paper explains that communicative competence is made up of four competence areas: Linguistic, which is knowing how to use the language's grammar, syntax and vocabulary; sociolinguistic, knowing how to use and respond to language appropriately; discourse, knowing how to interpret the larger context and to construct a coherent whole and strategic, knowing how to recognize and repair communication breakdowns by working around gaps in one's knowledge of the language. The author points out that communicative language teaching (CLT) began because educators and linguists were dissatisfied with the audiolingual and grammar-translation methods of foreign language instruction. The paper stresses that communicative language teaching places great emphasis on helping students use the target language in a variety of contexts and places great emphasis on learning language functions.
Table of Contents
Communicative Competence
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
Principles and Characteristics of CLT
Communicative Activities
Teacher's Roles in Communicative Language Teaching
Implementation of CLT in ESL and EFL Countries
From the Paper "Other research studies focus on the difficulty attributed to the English as a first language environment. In 1996, studies by Stapleton pointed out how Confucianism as a belief system appears to be in tension with underlying notions of communicative language teaching. In these studies, Stapeton examined the theory that Confucianism establishes the superior status and knowledge of the teacher over that of the students, thus elevating the role of the teacher above the students. In 1998, Li studied teaching and learning in China, concluding that local conditions seem to be detrimental to communicative language teaching methodology."
The following paper examines the theories of bilingualism and multilingalism, language acquisition and language learning, making reference to a number of case studies.
Abstract The following paper examines the theories on language acquisition and looks at the useful distinction between acquisition and learning. The writer also comments on approaches and methods to teaching second and foreign languages. Lastly the writer comments on interference as a factor in language learning.
Table of Contents
Bilingualism and Multilingualism
Diglossia
First Language Acquisition
Using a text-mapping device to depict the important stages in first-language acquisition
Theories on how language is acquired
Innateness
Cognition
Input
Approaches and methods to teaching second and foreign languages Interference as a factor in language learning.
From the Paper "Diglossia is the coexistence of two forms of the same language in speech community. The one form will often be the literary or prestige dialect, and the other one can be a dialect commonly spoken by most of the population. The term diglossia could also be used to indicate bilingualism, or the speaking of two languages by the people of the same community. An example for the first definition is the use of Dutch in Belgium. Dutch is one of the official languages in Belgium. Dutch-speaking Belgians are called the "Flemish" where the French-speaking Belgians are called "Walloons". Dutch spoken by Belgians is also referred to as "Flemish", which is not a literary form of the language, but a spoken "dialect". They are different varieties of the same language."
Abstract This paper examines the criteria for measuring early language development, the concepts associated with ascertaining a child's developmental progress, the research supporting the prevailing theories and the significant findings inherent in credible research in these areas. It discusses how all over the globe young children seem to effortlessly acquire two or more languages at one time, while some uphold the belief that children who are exposed to multiple languages too early may experience developmental language delays and/or confusion. It evaluates how scientific research has attempted to examine whether young bilinguals can ascertain that they are acquiring two separate and distinct languages early on.
Outline
Introduction
Research and Analysis
Bilingual Paradox
Bilingual Deficit Hypothesis
Unitary Language System Hypothesis
Bilingual Advantage Hypothesis
Differentiated Language System Hypothesis
Vocabulary Development
The MacArthur CDI
Linguistic Milestones
Lexical Identifiers
Neutrals
Translation Equivalents
Interlocutor Sensitivity
Language Choice
Codemixing
Parental Discourse Strategies
Early Constraints
Conclusion
Bibliography
From the Paper "The line of thought that resembles popular opinion about whether or not children should be raised bilingual from birth is called the "Bilingual Paradox". It is a paradox because there are conflicting contemporary theories about whether or not it is the preferred method of introducing two languages. While much research shows that, by several measures, children who are exposed to two languages simultaneously between the ages of zero and three achieve major milestones within the same timeframe and with similar results as monolinguals, the contemporary line of thought has been to teach a child one language early on, reserving the introduction of a second language for the later school years. The thinking associated with the latter opinion is that introducing two languages early on will confuse the child, or that the child will be disadvantaged in mastery of one or both languages. There are, however, steps parents can take early on based on proven research to give their child an advantage in learning language skills. Methodologies, tools, timing mechanisms and support strategies have been developed through testing and observation that aids children in successful and timely language development, specifically in the adoption of multiple languages."
This paper discusses the role that culture plays on language development and looks at the different stages, and outward effects that culture has on language.
Abstract This paper discusses language and the role of culture within learning. The paper asserts that the culture and environment a child is exposed to during the cultivation of language plays a key role in the development of his or her unique language facility. Specifically in this paper, the author opens by defining the two main schools of thought, the Nativist (or Hereditarians) and the Interactionists (or Environmentalists), as well as the Interactionists, asserting that the one similarity between each view is the need for social interaction either as a learning tool or an activation device. The paper goes on to discuss the stages of development throughout life and the concrete language development within each stage. Additionally, the paper assesses how the effects of culture on language are outwardly visible, for example through the act of translation or through the learning of additional languages. Finally, the paper concludes that throughout all of this, it can be shown that culture and language are mutually inclusive.
From the Paper "During the ongoing stages of development, semantics, syntactic and pragmatics the individual absorbs almost unconsciously the nuances of the language and the culture he or she is raised within. The rate at which a child increases vocabulary during the semantic stage is directly proportionate to the degree of their exposure to language through active verbal interactions from those around them such as parents, siblings as well as teachers and other caregivers. During the syntax phase the more formal development of language takes place wherein the child is learning to comprehend the basic rules of grammar and can more readily convey their thoughts and ideas in complete sentences. (Broderick & Blewitt 2006:.91-93) This is where the order of language that the culture has imposed comes into play. In some languages, such as Spanish, verbs begin sentences and are often a combination of the noun-subject and the action, in English the culture has delineated the subject from the action and the correct arrangement is subject -verb -object."
Tags: stages, development, semantics, syntactic, pragmatics, language
Abstract This paper discusses the different learning styles and language proficiency in terms of second language acquisition. It provides an overview of learning styles and their effects on language skills and variables. The paper looks at learning theories and contains an outline.
Tags: Learning style, language proficiency, second language acquisition, English as a second language
Abstract In this article examines the language of French and argues that French is a major or global language. The writer firstly defines the expression global language and explains that there are believed to be approximately 6700 languages in the world. To prove this argument, five characteristics of French are used to demonstrate that it is a global language.
From the Paper Human beings speak a tremendous number of languages. According to Professor Mary MacKeracher, "There are about 6700 languages in the world". Just because there are a large number of languages in the world does not mean that they are all equal in terms of numbers of speakers or distribution. Some languages such as English are spoken by a large number of people in many different countries. Other languages are spoken by a small numbers of people in relatively small geographic areas. Languages with large numbers of speakers and a wide geographic distribution are generally known as major or global languages. There are a number of languages that could be ... "
Abstract This paper takes a look at the negative consequences to Americans and American society suffered as a result of minimal foreign language skills. The paper compares the minimal emphasis that the American educational system places on learning a foreign language to the much stronger emphasis placed on learning a foreign language in virtually all other countries and then explains why the American educational system would be wise to implement better foreign language programs and promote the acquisition of a foreign language.
From the Paper "The world has about 6,000 different languages, give or take a few. Linguists predict that at least half of those may have disappeared by the year 2050, which means languages are becoming extinct at twice the rate of endangered animals and four times the rate of endangered birds. Predictions are that a dozen languages may dominate the world of the future at best. (Ostler, 2002) For Americans, that's probably a good thing, since we are seemingly genetically engineered to maintain an appalling ignorance of other languages, and have narrowed down the choices we offer our young people to approximately one, Spanish, viewed by many to be the easiest foreign language to learn. It has been described in various places as having an ?impoverished vocabulary,? which means less work for Dick and Jane. The American education system so far is doing nothing to reverse the endangered languages trend, and much to promote it. In fact, there has been a criminal drop-off in foreign language study in American high schools."
