Abstract This paper describes Aristotle's arguments against the ability of the Platonic theory of forms to adequately explain our knowledge of things.
The author explains that, in his arguments against Plato's theory of forms, Aristotle asserts that Plato's conception of the forms as the cause of our knowledge of all things is incomplete in its ability to explain the causes of the material world and our knowledge of it. If all knowledge was caused by the forms themselves, it follows that it would be impossible to acquire knowledge, for it would already be known.
From the Paper "Aristotle, in his Metaphysics, argues against the ability of the Platonic theory of Forms to adequately explain our knowledge of things, through its inability to describe the causal nature of the sensible world and prohibition of an ability to acquire knowledge. Aristotle prefaces his argument by refuting the view that the Forms are able to explain the being of things, essentially noting that they have no relation to the causes evident in the sensible world. Immobile Forms cannot explain motion; Forms without substance cannot be the substance of the material. Having established their inadequate relationship to the being of things, Aristotle then addresses the manner in which the Forms cannot either cause our knowledge of things. This end is achieved through four arguments, where if the Forms stand as the cause of our knowledge of all things, we would already have an a priori knowledge of all things and their material composition, which could not have been forgotten and was accessible to our sensory perception.
"Aristotle's first argument against the Forms as a cause of the knowledge of things is that it is impossible to have a prior knowledge of things, though this is exactly what the Forms would be. As Aquinas explains in his commentary, "...if the Ideas [Forms] are the cause of our knowledge, men must have a knowledge of all things, because the Ideas are the intelligible structures of all knowable things". If such were the case, man would already possess the very knowledge he sought to acquire; and it is apparent that men do acquire knowledge, as Aristotle demonstrates in his tracing of the history of philosophy as a development of the knowledge of causes. Knowledge may be said to generate from things already known, from particular to universal or vice-versa, but the knowledge itself is not already known. If knowledge of all things was based upon the Forms, man would already know everything and as such would never acquire knowledge."
Abstract The paper discuses the major differences between the symbolist/idealist theory and the materialist/realist theory which help define the theories' foundational characteristics. The writer names several theorists for each theory and notes their contribution to the theory. The paper explains that both theories believe that knowledge is developed through the theory's foundations, however, each theory has a different viewpoint on what that knowledge is derived from. The paper shows how symbolism is based in the more emotional and fluid experience while materialism/realists are proponents of experiences, aside from any emotions that may be created within that experience.
Outline:
Introduction
Materialist/Realist Theory Symbolist/Idealist
Conclusion
From the Paper "The most important difference in the factors between materialist/realist and symbolism/idealist theories is direct experience as it relates to direct knowledge. Experiences are concrete evidences of the external world through the use of the world as it is today. What someone experiences is tangible, definable and explainable therefore gives strength to the materialist/realist theory(http://websyte.com/alan/symbolsm.htm)."
"In the symbolic area of life things including emotions, feelings, induced actions or beliefs are all components of symbolism which are not as tangible or definable as actual experiences can be."
Abstract A discussion of individual knowledge gained by past experience, from actions and of knowledge in a business situation which depends on the environment, with the environment dependent on management.
From the Paper "The knowledge philosophy can be summarized by breaking it down into three areas. Firstly, individual knowledge comes from past experience. Knowledge is gained by an individual's experience. People are given certain facts that they may accept as truths, with a person able to either accept or reject the idea. Based on their past experience, including past knowledge they have accepted, they will either accept or reject new knowledge. Rejection would mean assuming either that the piece of information is not true or that it is not important. Acceptance would mean taking the information in and accepting it as part of what they know."
Abstract In this article, the writer explains that Patricia Benner presented a theory that dealt with how nurses acquire knowledge from the time the nurse is a student, up to the time when the nurse has gathered enough experience to decide based on personal judgment. The writer maintains that although some argue about its nature, whether it is a theory or a philosophy, its influence on the development of the nursing as a clinical practice and an academic discipline is undeniable. This paper gives a description of the person behind the theory and her contributions to nursing. The writer explains why Patricia Benner's theory is significant and shows how her theory has helped revolutionize nursing. in addition, a concise description of the theory content and how it is applied in clinical practice is presented. This paper also features views of authors that discredit or celebrate this theory. A discussion of the theory's weaknesses and strengths is discussed, as well as current development and theories that have developed from Benner's theory.
Outline:
Introduction
Patricia Benner and the Theory Clinical Applications
Conclusion and Evaluation
Bibliography
From the Paper "The proficient stage involves a nurse who can see the situation as a whole. He is able to appreciate the situation as a whole, and not as disjointed elements. He sees some elements as important, while others are inconsequential. He can organize and understand problems intuitively, but he still needs to be analytical before he decides and executes an appropriate management plan. He sees problems that may arise in the future, and includes them in the nurse's plan of action.
The final stage is the expertise stage, where the nurse has developed an intuitive eye in assessing and managing his patients. He has a deeper understanding of the situation and can make a decision without relying on analytical principles."
Abstract This paper examines how Plato's "Theory of Forms" and the "Allegory of the Cave" describe how abstract knowledge is achieved and to some extent clarify its nature. It also looks at how the Philosopher King or Guardian as the ruler of the state is considered to be able to act justly in possessing this knowledge. The limitations of both the concept of the philosopher king and the broader idea of abstract knowledge as a mechanism for justice are evaluated and conclusions are drawn.
From the Paper "In the republic, the divided line shows the relation between opinion and knowledge. Knowledge and opinion are the difference between the two forms of reality that Plato asserts exist. Opinion will be either perception/belief or conjecture/imagining and knowledge will be reason or understanding . Plato asserts that the two 'higher' forms of reason and understanding are supreme over everything in the intelligible world and the visible world. What humans see (in the intelligible and visible world) is their interpretation of a 'higher' form which is the essence of the object or concept under consideration. So what humans see are therefore merely shadows, images and reflections of this."
Abstract This paper examines the philosophies of Plato, Nietzsche and Marx, with respect to the relationship between power and knowledge. It discusses the question of who should control knowledge and disseminate it in society, the faculty of reason and justifications for certain concepts of power.
From the Paper "The relation between 'Power' and 'Knowledge' is indispensable, it is very often that Knowledge is had by some and others do action. Knowledge without action makes things static, it becomes of no use and action without knowledge leads to nowhere. Action is the way, in which knowledge progresses, to the good or to the detriment of people, societies and the future. These actions have always given way to some sort of power structure. What is in our power to do, is to analyze the social practices' in operation within our society. The more we gain knowledge of things the more powerful we become. As the human beings gained knowledge of things in the course of history, about the world and about themselves, they gradually gained control of things. But generally knowledge of certain things has always resulted in using that knowledge to gain power and control our others. This can be seen in religion, the knowledge about god, and other doctrines of religion has been used by people who claim to have knowledge of the absolute to oppress and gain control over the masses in the history of human civilization. Where ever there is knowledge there has to have power.
In this paper I will examine the issues which arise as a result of the relationship between knowledge and power and specifically to the aspect as to who should control knowledge and disseminate it in society. Of course power has always been exercised in different political and social practices, to analyze the operations of social practices in our society, the relationship between the faculty of reason and the justification of certain concepts that work within our society. The fact that the faculty of reason is also a social practices and has been used to justify many power relationships. In our society the thirst for abstract knowledge first began with the ancient Greeks, the first philosophers who were the lovers of wisdom or knowledge and knowledge for them was the search for truth."
Abstract The following paper discusses and gives examples of how new ideas and knowledge are offered to public consciousness and that they are in turn either accepted or disregarded and whichever judgement is chosen, makes a statement about where society places its trust, how ready we are to accept change and how radical we will allow any changes to be. This paper distinguishes between different kinds of knowledge: Medical (scientific knowledge), Religious knowledge, Political ideologies and Social Science theories.
From the Paper "Medical knowledge is an area which appears to be constantly advancing and changing, new ideas are regularly offered to the public consciousness to be either accepted or disregarded and whichever judgement is chosen makes a statement about where society places its trust, how ready we are to accept change, how radical we will allow any changes to be and whose theories and evidence mass society is willing to accept. An example of this is Alternative Medicine, although it is more accepted now than in previous years like, aromatherapy massage which is now actively promoted by mainstream health professionals as a complimentary therapy during pregnancy and treatment of bad backs, we even have a small number of practitioners qualified in alternative therapies, like homeopathy, scientists have even remarked in the age old profession of palmistry being very accurate in the diagnosis of certain illnesses, the setting up of The Royal Society in 1662 emphasised the 'expert knowledge' camaraderie between so-called experts over common sense knowledge. 'Expert knowledge' was historically endorsed and distributed by middle and upper class male establishments like the Royal Society which was founded by Charles II and allowed male members only and women were only allowed to qualify in Medicine in 1876. This male superiority increased authority to this group in society; their medical knowledge trusted and officially endorsed which in turn dismissed female 'common sense' knowledge."
Abstract This paper explains that, beyond the traditional disciplines of planning, organizing, leading and controlling, the traits of effective leaders and managers needs to center on creating lasting competitive advantages for their firms by making them agile and quick to respond to competitive and market conditions. The paper also points out that management theories are needed to enable leadership to create passion for change in employees. The paper stresses that an entirely new set of constructs and frameworks for analyzing, interpreting and ultimately responding to the use of time as a competitive asset needs to be developed to meet the demands of the 21st century. The highly lauded Toyota Production System (TPS) is used as an example of the application of management theories to accomplish this needed cultural change.
Table of Contents:
Synopsis
Changing Perception of Management Principles and Theories Changing the Perception of Competing on Price/Features/Functions to Competing on Knowledge Summary and Conclusions
From the Paper "Historically organizations rely on the price, features, functions and promotional strategies for sustaining the sales of their products. The uses of these aspects of a product also are heavily relied on for differentiation relative to competitors. From a cursory analysis of the industries where this is most prevalent, the product life cycles are often rapid (2 years or less) and marked by many price drops over time in an attempt to drive price elasticity advantages back into a product that in many instances is seen by consumers or customers as a commodity."
Tags: toyota, supply chain network, knowledge process-centric time
Abstract This paper analyzes the subject of Knowledge Management by comparing two papers, Managing Knowledge for Personal and Organizational Benefit? by Catherine Bailey & Martin Clarke, and ?Knowledge Management in Small and Medium Sized Companies: Knowledge Management for Entrepreneurs? by R.P. uit Beijerse." The papers are analyzed and evaluated as separate papers and as well as compared and contrasted, with references from other sources.
From the Paper "Both articles emphasize the importance of the individual, however the Bailey and Clarke article focuses more heavily on the benefit to the organization from the individuals development, the Beijerse article is more general in terms of knowledge within all aspects of the workplace, analyzing the structure, strategy and culture. Many other authors have analyzed the contribution of individuals knowledge to the benefit of an organization. ??brings together business processes, as well as the activities, skills and expertise of individuals within the business.? (Phelps A, 2000)"
This paper discusses nursing theory, specifically in regards to self-care facilitated by Dorothy Orem's model and the mid-range theory of the community health model.
Abstract This paper discusses the importance of nursing theory as not simply a philosophical abstraction, but as also useful for the demands for "description, explanation, prediction and control" during nursing work and study. Having a background in nursing theories can prove helpful because theories give clues as to what to ask, what to observe, what to focus on and what to think about when a nurse is under pressure or dealing with a noncompliant patient. The paper asserts that even grand theories have a practical emphasis. They can offer validation of the patient's cultural differences and self-empowerment and actualization through facilitating patient self-care. Self-care facilitation is a stress in many of the grand theories, as Orem's theory likewise attempts to address self-care deficits such as patient noncompliance with a dietary or physical fitness regime. There is always inevitable overlap between models, as contemporary nursing models and grand theories all strive to be limited to a focus on problems in nurse-patient situations or problems in person-environment interaction to be of use in practitioners in the field. Furthermore, the paper looks at the use of middle range theories in nursing, which some assert are more useful and more easily tested in practice. These mid-range theories act as subsidiaries of grand theories, and draw a great deal of their philosophy from grand theories. The major categories of knowledge reflected in different contemporary nursing models and grand theories, which include needs-based approaches, interaction-based approaches, outcome-focused approaches and humanistic approaches can be placed through the use of mid-range theories in a very specific context, such as pain management, or health promotion.
From the Paper "Orem places a strong emphasis on exercise and physical activity that the patient can achieve him or herself. In the Community Empowerment Model, the nurse can provide counseling how to achieve such goals in the context of the patient's specific community and cultural environment (Extract from "Medicare Primary and Consumer Directed Care Demonstration: Health Promotion Nurse Intervention Model," 2002). The importance of exercise is directly derived from Orem's stress upon the need for the nurse to help the patient with such basic self-care modalities as nutrition, hygiene (including better sleep hygiene), mobility (including exercise), medication, and more empowered behavior. Orem also stresses patient empowerment in the context of direct nursing care, where the nurse has direct contact with client and/or family, along with Orem's the belief that self-care deficits are the result of environmental situations (Mayo, 1997).
"The environmental impact upon self-care also illustrates how the Community Empowerment Middle Range theory springs directly from Orem's influence, along with the pragmatic and humanist philosophical influences gave birth to Orem's stress upon patient empowerment during the entire process of treatment. The Community Empowerment Model also incorporates multiculturalism into its philosophy. Both theories share the logical positivist emphasis which stresses situations and context dictating the course of treatment, and the importance of taking into consideration the environment of the patient."
Tags: self-care facilitation Orem, mid-range theory, community health model, treatment
Abstract This paper examines the many theories and processes of contemporary management theory and explains the benefits and drawbacks of implementing these theories. The paper explains two of these theories - contingency theory and systems theory - in detail. The writer discusses how all of the contemporary management theories are somehow related to another. The writer then suggests that in order to understand these differences, organizations must become a 'learning organization' and be efficient in their knowledge management. The writer further notes that there are limitations to some of these theories as they are still currently being researched, developed and revised as time passes. The writer concludes that the beauty of contemporary management theory is that it allows us to combine, experiment and find best alternatives in dealing with today's managerial problems.
From the Paper "Management has been around since the beginning of human civilization, way back to the Egyptian times. The earlier years of the last century gave birth to the first theories in approaching management, which we today classify as the classical perspective. During that time management theorists "conceptualise organisations as machines, and workers as cogs within those machines" (Davidson et al. 2006, p. 21). This view gradually evolved into behavioural perspectives theories. The behavioural theories incorporated the elements of "individual attitudes and behaviours" as well as the "group processes" (Davidson et al. 2006, p. 22). At present we now look at management at a contemporary perspective. Contemporary theories "seek to derive value for the organisation" (Davidson et al. 2006, p. 26) by trying to interpret the "today's organizational environments" through the use of past and current perspectives."
Abstract The paper explains Allen Tough's theory of the self-directed learning among ordinary adult learners. The paper evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of the theory and shows how this theory, with its important quality of life concepts, can be used to create a more positive learning environment. The paper then discusses how this theory can be applied to improve the individual learning of followers and how a leader could apply this theory to create a better learning organization.
Outline:
A Description of the Learning Theory and How it is Viewed by Researchers and Practitioners
Identify the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Theory How this Theory Can be Used to Create a More Positive Learning Environment in Your Organization
How this Theory can be Applied to Improve the Individual Learning of Followers
How You as a Leader can Apply this Theory to Create a Better Learning Organization
From the Paper "Allen Tough's learning theory is based on a series of surveys and interviews he conducted during the late 1960s and early 1970s at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education in Canada in an effort to provide an empirical basis to improve on the anecdotal evidence of self-directed learning among ordinary adult learners (Jarvis, Holford & Griffin, 2003). Based on these interviews, Tough developed a learning theory that indicated adults were more self-directed as learners than teachers gave them credit for being; in addition, Tough maintained that personal recognition and satisfaction were important motivators of such adult learning and that teachers of adult learners needed to take such tendencies into account in their curriculum development efforts (Grasha, 1990)."
Abstract This paper constructs a comprehensive theory of counseling that takes into account a delineation of personality structure that considers motivation and human development. The stated theory also accounts for individual differences and provides a definition of health, illness and elements of comprehensive theory of cure. Furthermore, the paper discusses techniques that guide the therapeutic process and explains how the overall theory relates to a comprehensive worldview. The paper focuses on Christian counseling.
Table of Contents:
Abstract
Introduction
Personality Structure
Motivation
Human Development
Individual Differences
Definition Of Health
Definition Of Illness
Elements In A Comprehensive Theory Of Cure
Techniques That Guide The Therapeutic Process
Demonstration of Effectiveness
Relation Of Theory To A Comprehensive Worldview
Conclusion
From the Paper "The idea of this approach to counseling takes into account the idea of secular counselors but it is not dependent upon them. The world views counseling as a discipline like many other professions but that type of thinking is incorrect. Counseling does not depend on growing amounts of technical knowledge administered by highly trained professionals. This approach is more about developing relation to cocreate solutions to problems (Kollar, 1997). This approach demonstrates that counseling is a relationship between people who care (Crabb, 1977). The world looks at finding happiness when it encounters problems. The overall goal of the individual should be to respond biblically to the situations, circumstances and illnesses that come with life (Crabb, 1977). Our modern emphasis on personal wholeness, human potential and freedom to be ourselves from a selfish perspective has shifted us from a commitment to be more Christlike (Crabb, 1977). We must get back to the mindset of the Garden of Eden when Adam walked in the cool of the day with the Lord having all of his needs met and everything was very good (Gen 1:29-31)."
Abstract This paper looks at the implications, for social anthropology, of discourses on knowledge and power by focusing on Foucault's ideas and by analyzing several ethnographic studies.
From the Paper "Social science knowledge informs the way in which people interpret their experiences, and can be empowering, as in the case of political and feminist discourses. However, knowledge, employed as discourse, can also be employed in ways that disempower, and this is the focus of much of Foucault's work. The implication for academic work is that social science knowledge can serve to either empower or disempower its subjects, sometimes both, and in all cases it has influence over its subjects and its audience, by virtue of being itself a discourse, albeit a scientific one."
Abstract The paper relates that contemporary organizational theories have shifted the focus of control from the organizational structure itself to the value and contribution of the individual. The paper explains this to mean that today's theories have changed from being essentially hierarchical, rigid and lacking agility. The paper shows how theories today take a more integrated approach to responding to customers and the broader market influences.
Outline:
Introduction
Organizational Theories' Evolutionary Pattern of Growth
The Future of Organizational Theories' Evolution
Conclusion
From the Paper "In analyzing how contemporary organization theories are a product of an evolutionary process, the progression of theories can't be viewed in isolation, they must be seen as influenced by the broader demographic, economic, sociological and more immediate knowledge management and managerial trends within organizations. The progression of top-down organizational structures that were heavily influenced by both the military chain-of-command concepts (Mutch, pp. 751 - 769) and the bureaucratic approach to management have dramatically changed as organizational theories have transitioned over the last century. From theories that were centered purely on the creation of closed-loop systems that had as their catalyst military chains of command to the more contemporary theories today that stress agility and responsiveness, organizational theories have gone through significant change over the last century."
