Abstract By claiming that space is empirically real and transcendentally ideal, Kant rejects both the Newtonian and Leibnizian metaphysical views, though, to be sure, he also finds a median between them. In the preface to the "Critique of Pure Reason," Kant asks, "How are synthetic judgments a priori possible?" To show that they are, he cites pure mathematics and pure natural science as 'progressive' exemplars. Kant plans to show that these judgments are possible, in part, because of the pure forms of intuition, namely, space and time. In this paper, the writer gives a detailed examination and critique of his main arguments to this effect, principally with reference to H. Allison's excellent commentary, "Kant's Transcendental Idealism."
From the Paper "His position was that such a form must necessarily and logically proceed the actual intuition of an object, and thus, must be given by the mind (logically) prior to any possible experience of an object as distinct from the self. This is the sense in which it is necessary and universal - that is, a priori - as it is an 'epistemic condition' of all human knowledge derived from outer sense. So far I have only asserted Kant's claims, I shall now turn to the arguments he puts forth to establish the apriority and pure intuitive nature of space."
Abstract In this article, the writer refutes the claim that the sociology of taste undermines Kant's theory of pure aesthetic judgment. The writer describes Bourdieu's claim that there is no such thing as disinterested judgment because all judgments are sociologically motivated. The essay goes on to point out that Bourdieu is discussing sociology, which does not encroach on Kant's epistemology at all. Kant acknowledges that aesthetic judgment will be guided by taste, but this will not explain why one is actually moved by beauty, and for this reason he posits the existence of pure aesthetic judgment. The essay analyses Monet's paintings "Impression, Sunrise" and "Blue Water Lilies" in order to illustrate the theme.
From the Paper "Kant is a philosopher, and he scarcely encroaches on the field of sociology. Of course a philosopher cannot ignore society. Kant alludes to society when he calls something practical, or contingent. Aesthetic judgment takes place in the context of society, as far as it is motivated by determinate ends. Only that part of it which transcends all determinate ends, and prefigures beauty, in its purity, and in its inexplicableness, may be said to be beyond the bounds of society. The object of Kant's metaphysics is to point out how the contingent is ruled by the transcendental. Therefore, in his epistemology he makes out practical reason to be ruled by pure reason, and in his critique of morality he describes duty as being ruled by the categorical imperative."
Abstract This paper is an attempt to show how Kant's ideas concerning practical and transcendental freedom of the will were a significant correction to the parallel theories of David Hume. The writer starts out by clarifying Hume's critique of free will, and how he arrives at the conclusion that the will is properly beyond analysis. For this reason Hume declares metaphysics to be impossible. The writer notes that Kant's task is to rescue metaphysics from this crisis. He does not deny that metaphysics is impossible, yet he sets out on the task of analyzing the will. The writer then discusses that Kant does not aim to provide metaphysics, but only to restore faith in the act of thinking. His explicit aim is for clarity in thinking. The essay goes on to outline the metaphysics of Kant in some detail and assesses how far it is successful in its aim.
From the Paper "After impact with the first ball the second could have taken any one of an infinite number of trajectories. But it takes only one, and indeed we expect it to take only that one. A physicist may come along and try to convince us that it could not have taken any other trajectory because the laws of motion stipulates that, with the initial conditions given, the path it takes is the only possible one. But this is not an answer to the observer of the billiard ball, because he doesn't care what the laws of physics are. If nature had followed another mathematical law then another outcome would have been just as valid. The observer could then have framed his conundrum differently: Of the infinite possible mathematical laws why just that one? There is nothing in the inner logic of the situation that dictates that the first ball should produce exactly the prescribed trajectory in the second."
Tags: reason, enlightenment, skepticism, duty, pure
Abstract In this article, the writer discusses that the will is central to Kant's consideration of the metaphysics of morals. The will, as normally understood, is not really free, but carries with it the potential of freedom if it follows the moral law. In doing so the individual acts with autonomy, and then they are the natural 'law-givers' in a 'kingdom of ends'. The last is a postulated place where all ends are universal, and thus are ends in themselves. This essay argues that such a place is not realizable by deliberate means. The writer maintains that Kant is not really imposing the standard of "infallible reason", but rather his concerns are with metaphysics. His overriding aim is to establish a solid foundation for metaphysics.
From the Paper "When we exercise free will we are motivated by the promise of tangible gain. At the grossest level it is material gain that we aim for. Such gain has more euphemistic representations, e.g. happiness, utility, convenience, and so on. But however euphemistically we may word such motivation, we may never describe it as universal. It is always contingent, and when the contingency expires the gain is lost. We may be motivated to work hard towards a college education when our goal is a respectable standing in society. As long as we are students the motivation is meaningful. But after we a settled in a white collar job the motivation disappears, replaced by others even more forceful, in which mere respectability is not enough, but we want to be further admired among the 'respectable'. However highly we may eulogize respectability, death brings an end to whole game, and we cannot take our respectability with us to the grave. Some contend that the great among men live on in memory. But memory too fades, and oblivion is the inevitable end result."
Tags: morals, pure, reason, enlightenment, foundation, thought
Abstract This paper explores the crucial connection between David Hume to Immanuel Kant. The paper aims to show that their respective philosophies are in essence the same. The paper reports that because they gave rise to such divergent traditions, they are generally analysed as being philosophically apart.
From the Paper "Immanuel Kant was a rabid Newtonian, and indeed an active scientist, until a blinding realisation took over him on coming across a remark of Hume's. He is credited with the nebular hypothesis of planetary formation, originated while he taught mathematics and Newton's physics at the University of Konigsberg. After his momentous realisation he dedicated the rest of life to philosophy alone. The contention of Hume is that reason must be directed to the human sphere, and must be serving passions, not abstractions in the head. But such reasoning must have a moral substratum if it is not to revert to Hobbesian anarchy - the war of all against all. This is where Hume fails, because though he does advance a morality - the utilitarian argument, "the greatest good of the greatest number" - it remains cold and calculating, thus devoid of inspiration value. Kant fills this lack. "
Abstract This paper deals with approaches taken to Kant's categorical imperative. The author examines the Kant's work such as "Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals", and various interpretations by critics such as Dietrichson as well as Allison. A look at Kant's approach to methodologies.
From the Paper "When Immanuel Kant wrote his Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, it was as the basis for which he would write all his latter works on the study of morality ? namely reason in Kant's estimation (though admittedly this is a simplification). There have been numerous chapters written on Kant's work in the Groundwork, and therefore, there have been numerous approaches to analysis of the Groundwork attempted by authors who have sought to either support or attack Kant's conceptions of human motivations."
Abstract This paper examines Henry Allison's critique of Kant's theory of rational judgement and then highlights and explains the difficulties Allison has with Kant's theory. Specifically, this paper explains Allison's view that, in contrast with Kant, one cannot have a "disinterested liking" toward the object being judged.
From the Paper "The aesthetics of taste and the merits of rational judgement are often posited as binary opposites. Yet rationalism did not lead Kant to exclude taste from his system of philosophy. Instead, taste figures prominently in Kant's analytic, notes scholar Henry Allison in his text on Kant's Theory of Taste. (2) The theory of disinterested taste advanced in Kant's Analytic of the Beautiful is explicitly in dialogue with his German philosophic contemporaries. It attempts to define a pure judgment of taste, which Kant believes must be devoid of all interest. ?Everyone has to admit that if a judgement about beauty is mingled with the least interest than it is very partial and not a pure judgement of taste.?
Abstract The paper explains Berger's view that human beings are meant to have freedom. The paper shows how Kant basically believed the same thing when he stated that human beings are ends in themselves. The paper looks at the two passages that are concerned with the basic beliefs of these two individuals. The paper analyzes these passages in terms of assumptions, language, perspectives and arguments. The paper explains how both Berger and Kant believed that the human being has a high purpose but that the purpose could be easily taken away. The paper highlights how according to Berger, society could destroy it and Kant believed that humans can be used by other people.
From the Paper "Berger is concerned with the individual's position in society and with people's ability to deal with the facades of society. Society can lead in two directions. Kant was not concerned with society, but only with the individual's actions towards other people. In Berger's view, human beings are meant to have freedom, and Kant basically believed the same thing when he stated that human beings are ends in themselves. The two passages are concerned with the basic beliefs of these two individuals. The passages will be analyzed in terms of assumptions, language, perspectives and arguments."
Abstract This paper discusses Immanuel Kant's ideas about space and time, showing how they flowed from Newton and then developed as a mental construct more than a description of any reality. The paper shows that these ideas were bound with Kant's ideas about human consciousness and the relationship between perceptions and reality, human thought and the material world, as part of Kant's theory of knowledge.
From the Paper "Immanuel Kant is best known as a moral philosopher, though his writings address many other issues and include an ontological discussion of questions about space, time, and the relationship of man to God. Such questions are closely bound with Kant's ideas about human consciousness and the relationship between perceptions and reality, human thought and the material world. Moral philosophy is also known as ethics and consists of the study of certain values which help determine human behavior. Different theorists take different approaches to the issue. An interesting and complex approach is offered by Immanuel Kant. Bernard Williams notes that Kant relies on some ideas which are not shared by other modern theorists, "in particular that a commitment to the basic principle of morality (the so-called 'Categorical Imperative') is presupposed by the very activity of a rational agent" (Williams 555)."
Abstract The paper explores a pressing moral dilemma and how it appears Kant, Bentham and Hare would treat such a matter were they alive. Specifically, the paper looks at euthanasia and at the positions of each philosopher on this morally and intellectually vexing issue. To begin with, a review of Kant's work indicates that would he be alive today, he would be strongly opposed to euthanasia because of the unintended negative consequences it can create and because of his own revulsion towards suicide. Moreover, Bentham would, in the writer's opinion, be less-than-congenial towards euthanasia because of the potential it has to create far more harm than good for society at large (thereby making it a decidedly non-utilitarian practice) and because, like Kant, he feels that suicide is an offensive act worthy of condemnation.
Abstract This paper examines the philosophical outlooks of Immanuel Kant and David Hume, with the author concluding that Kant's perspective is preferable. Kant's opinion on how one gains knowledge is contrasted with Hume's. Both perspectives on the contribution of experience to knowledge and the role of the "self" and a personal "world" are also considered.
Outline:
Introduction
Exposition
Conclusion
From the Paper "In his principal book entitled, "The Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals," Kant explains why only the categorical imperative is the valid standard of moral obligation (Abbott 2006, Richards 2006, McCormick 2006). He limits his discussion to specific willful actions in moral situations or conditions, where the will is, or should be, influenced only by reason or rational considerations, rather than by subjective or emotional considerations, such as laziness, convenience, or advantage . He writes that morality involves what actions are necessary and that concept comes only from reason or rational considerations. These rational considerations must, in turn, be a "single principle of obligation (Richards)." It must also be stated as a command and has no reference to, or weighed against, the consequences of the action. Kant then says that only the categorical imperative fulfills all these conditions (Richards, Abbott, McCormick)."
This paper addresses differences between two versions of the famous categorical imperative in Kant's Groundwork for the Metaphysic of Morals. These formulations deal with the universal/objective and individual/subjective views of moral and ethical action
1,650 words (approx. 6.6 pages), 1 source, 2002, $ 62.95
Abstract This paper addresses differences between two versions of the famous categorical imperative in Kant's Groundwork for the Metaphysic of Morals. These formulations deal with the universal/objective and individual/subjective views of moral and ethical actions. There is some discrepancy between what ethical 'results' each formulation delivers, which is discussed in the paper.
Abstract This paper compares the ideas and theories of John Stuart Mill and Immanuel Kant concerning morals. The paper compares their views on moral concerns necessary for ethical decisions and moral perceptions of higher and lower pleasures. The paper also examines and discusses differences between the two philosophers regarding moral judgment and decisions and contends that Kant's moral system is more complete.
From the Paper "Any truly complete ethics must address a number of concerns. These concerns include moral perception, moral choice, moral judgment, moral justification and moral systems. While a number of theorists have addressed these aspects of ethics, the ideas and theories advanced by Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill seem to offer the most complete and affirmative approaches to these concerns. For any ethics to exist there must be some type of moral perception present in individuals and in entire societies. John Stuart Mill found that almost all..."
Tags: morals, philosophy, John Stuart Mill, Immanuel Kant
Abstract The paper compares and contrasts the theory of subjectivity in Immanuel Kant's "Critique of Judgment" and Wolfgang Iser's "Interaction Between Text and Reader." The paper discusses the cultural context in which each theory surfaced and how Kant's and Iser's concepts and theories can be made operational.
From the Paper "The purpose of this research is to compare and contrast the role of the subject and subjectivity for aesthetic reception and or production in Immanuel Kant's "Critique of Judgment" and in Wolfgang Iser's "Interaction Between Text and Reader." The research will set forth the cultural context in which each theory surfaces and the manner in which each commentator defines relevant terms and then discuss how their concepts and theories can be made operational in selected texts and thereby contribute to understanding and clarification of them."
Abstract This essay discusses philosopher Immanuel Kant's approach to the Enlightenment as presented in his work, "What is Enlightenment". The author of the paper addresses the following questions: Why did Kant choose to address the Enlightenment as he did? Is his approach as narrow as it seems to be? What exactly was the Enlightenment? Was it arborescent or rhizomatic? Depending on how it is defined, what approach should be taken to this phenomenon?
From the Paper "The Enlightenment is an enigma in that it represents an abrupt transition from the thought of the preceding period with a subsequent transformation of all social and cultural institutions. Yet, Kant treats the Enlightenment by using an apparently very narrow focus which leads to numerous problems. "
