Abstract
This paper examines the ways historians have characterised the nationalist women's movements in colonial India between 1850 and 1900. The author has also looked at three different schools of thought as separate chapters, in order to look at the notions of practices such as sati and Purdah that were prevalent in colonial India during the time in question.

Outline:
Introduction
The Cambridge School
The Feminist School
The Subaltern Approach
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Most of the government reports were written by men, either by British colonial officials, people appointed by the Raj or people associated with the nationalist parties like the Congress Party. They help to provide the public context of the anti-colonial movement and the British response to it, however this was the public context viewed through male only eyes and so cannot provide the entire picture.
"Furthermore, there is not much information concerning women's contributions in the domestic domain, which is central to women's experiences and so consequently is the main concern of women's writings. I will try to illuminate the work of historians who have looked at the role of women's agency both 'hidden' and 'seen', inside and outside of the domestic sphere.
"There are some perspectives that have not produced a sufficient amount of research to look at on the topic in question with one such perspective being Marxism, whereby there have been no major historical writings on the issue of Indian women."

Tags:domestic, culture, symbolic, motherhood

Abstract
This paper discusses the pragmatism of the women's feminist movements in Indian history by presenting the points of view expressed in articles written by four different authors, namely: Suruchi Thapar-Bjorkert's "The Domestic Sphere as a Political Site: A Study of Women in the Indian Nationalist Movement", Carol Hills' "Nationalism and feminism in Late Colonial India: The Rani of the Jhansi regiment 1943-1945", Basu Apama's "Feminism and Nationalism in India, 1917-1947", and Stephen Legg's Gendered Politics and Nationalized Homes: Women and the Anti-Colonial Struggle in India: 1930-47". The analysis and discussion of these articles represents a critical view on the nature of feminism in India during the rise of Indian nationalism during the early and middle parts of the 20th century.

Outline:
Introduction
Analysis and Discussion
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Basu Apama's article "Feminism and Nationalism in India, 1917-1947" dictates the state of feminist movements during a wide range of history, but provides the tenets of the feminist movement that was seen through the rise of Indian nationalism. Apama's argument for feminist liberation resides on the power of Mahatma Gandhi who actively supported the various feminist movements that sought to derail the traditional patriarchal constructs of violence as a form of opposition:
[Gandhi] claimed that women were better than men in waging nonviolent passive resistance because they had greater capacity for self-sacrifice and endurance, were less self seeking, and had moral courage.
This aspect of the women's movement helped to bring many women into the nationalist movement in India, but certainly, the pragmatic aspect of this foundation for feminist involvement only supports a patriarchal construct. One critical view of this feminist" ideology is that women were actively still performing a submissive role that could still deemed submissive to the male roles of aggression and "violence." The basis of a feminist movement in India appears to be validating the aggressive and submissive roles of women, especially when Apama defines women through Gandhi's ideology for being "less self seeking" in their agenda as a women seeking liberation. This begs the question: Were women merely being used as human shields through their typically submissive female roles in Indian nationalism? The pragmatism of Apama's article surely does not answer crucial questions as to how women were being liberated due to the often powerful men that still controlled political and traditional male roles in Indian society. Although feminist movements began to become more organized, the issue of its effectiveness is highly questionable under the policies of Gandhi in this period of history. In this manner, Apama promotes the freedom of women from the bonds of patriarchal institutions, yet there is little evidence that they made advances in reducing the often submissive stereotypes and generalizations made about them by the male donated nationalist movements in Indian history."

Tags:liberation, patriarchal, submissive, stereotypes

Abstract
This essay discusses the efforts by women to lead social reform movements in India during the 1970s and 1980s, including demonstrations against sexual exploitation, anti-price rise movements, and anti-alcohol movements as the forerunners of modern women's movements in the country.

From the Paper
"Movements in India have historically incorporated women from anti-price to anti-alcohol movements. Women have been victims of sexual exploitation, especially those of lower-class or caste and also victims of violence, whether Hindu or Muslim. Women's involvement in such movements and women's activism nevertheless, has been rather complex. As Subamaniam asserts; "The contemporary women's movement comprises numerous groups and organizations which vary in location, form and type, groups include urban, rural, small, large, informal, formal, localized, national, internationally affiliated and combinations of..."

Tags:caste, rape, violence, freedom, gender equality, unions, mines, textiles

Abstract
In this paper, the writer discusses that although there is a concerted effort to realize the inequalities of the workload that women now partake in the new liberated feminism of the 21st century, there is still a greater lack of care or response by males to father their children. The writer claims that in this manner, the need for a religious and economic reformation of mother's roles, should be constructed to help integrate family ideals into the male milieu.

From the Paper
"The theme of feminist group marginalization is the basis of the articles written by Gloria Steinem and Audre Lorde. In both cases the modernity of feminist principles that give women greater freedoms is becoming a 'pass' style of counter culture values within the patriarchal milieu of society. In this manner, women in society, especially as young students on campuses, are prone to be at school for reasons other than education or liberating principles for their sex or gender role. Steinem reflects this stage in feminist ideology."

Tags:feminist, studies, articles

Abstract
The paper looks at the article by Jane Gaskell and Sandra Taylor - "The Women's Movement and Canadian and Australian Education: From Liberation and Sexism to Boys and Social Justice" - that is a comparative analysis of the similarities and differences in the effects of the women's movements in Australia and Canada in terms of shaping educational policy and practice between 1970 and 2000. The paper discusses how while the two contexts were very similar, the study notes that a key difference between the two experiences lay in the significant degree of institutionalization of the women's movement in Australian state bureaucracies. The study notes, however, that while this has resulted in more institutional power for the women's movement in the shaping of education policy in Australia in contrast to Canada, the outcomes in terms of women's achievements in education in both countries remain similar (14-15).

From the Paper
"The article by Jane Gaskell and Sandra Taylor - "The Women's Movement and Canadian and Australian Education: From Liberation and Sexism to Boys and Social Justice" - is a comparative analysis of the similarities and differences in the effects of the women's movements in Australia and Canada in terms shaping educational policy and practice between 1970 and 2000. While the two contexts were very similar, the study notes that a key difference between the two experiences lay in the significant degree of institutionalization of the women's movement in Australian state..."

Tags:women, education, review

Abstract
This paper will discuss the periods of Women's Feminism through the two waves that they come in. The first part discussed will be the period 1848-70, the second period 1893-1920. The period from 1970 and till today will be compared with the other periods in history. The 1920 Declaration of Sentiments will also be touched upon in the comparison of these greatly varying movements on the feminist front.

Abstract
Using as a background Bernal Diaz del Castillo's book "Historia de Conquista de la Nueva Espaa", written about the Spanish conquest of Mexico in the sixteenth century, the paper discusses the Indian women who were lovers to these Spaniards, the most famous being La Malinche, lover to Hernan Cortes himself. The paper uses the character of Maria - lover of one of Cortes' officers - to show the history of these women and what drove them to so-call betray their people by 'sleeping with the enemy'. The paper shows how La Malinche (and others) have been portrayed in Mexican cultural history as mothers of the mestizo - children of mixed Spanish and Indian race. The paper discusses too how public opinion of La Malinche has changed during recent years, mostly due to the influence of feminist movements, who see her as a symbol of the endurance of the Mexican people.

From the Paper
"But there is another element to the original and long-enduring disregard and even hatred that has been cast upon La Malinche, and the other women who (like the Maria of our story) shared similar structural positions. Women who produced Mexican " mestizo " children have been hated by many Mexicans until the most recent generation not because of their betrayal of the Aztecs but because of their engendering of the entire race of Mexicans. It is because Mexicans have for so long hated themselves, hated their own mixed heritage, that they hate La Malinche and other women like her. It is only when Mexicans come to peace with their own mestizo heritage that they can possibly come to terms with La Malinche and revere her as the founder of the race. It seems fairly certain that she was indeed Cortes's lover but also that she was faithful to him. This should hardly brand her as a whore."

Tags:Tabasco, Aztecs, Martin, de, Hernandez, y, Gomez, Tlaxcala, South, American, history

Abstract
Discusses her rise to power in the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma to Principal Chief. Her early impoverished life. Growing interest in tribal politics. Involvement with Naive Americans in San Francisco. How she helped bring self-sufficiency to her people and helped raise the status of women. Her contribution to the feminist movement in general.

From the Paper
"The history of the women's rights movement is littered with trailblazers who led the way before women believed they would achieve equal rights with men in society. From the suffragettes of the early twentieth century to the "girlpower" divas of the new millennium, women have struggled to carve out a voice and message of their own. Significant strides have been made towards gender-equality in the past century, with the right to vote and the right to have an abortion signifying important milestones in the women's movement. And though the news is mostly good, there nevertheless remains a wide gulf in the way women and men are treated in our society. This fact is compounded by the deterioration of the feminist movement from its peak in the nineteen-sixties. As young women look to the new millennium, it is important that they identify leaders to emula..."

Tags:INDIAN

Abstract
This paper examines the concept of sati, its history, and its apparent revival in a 1987 case of a Rajasthan village woman, Roop Kanwar, who committed sati towards new glorification of old ideas of Hindu womanhood and the intolerability of widows. The paper's discussion points to textual origins of anti-woman attitudes in Hinduism, use of such materials by the political HIndutva movement, the battle of feminists and law makers to ban sati anew, as part of efforts to prevent widow murder and see widows supported in Indian society.

From the Paper
"Westerners tend to be fascinated by the sati commonly described as widow-burning in Hindu society. Indian feminists insist on attention being paid to what sati indicates of social attitudes towards women, at large. Sati refers to a special state entered into or attained by self-immolation on the funeral pyre of one's husband. There are various scriptural references or justifications for the practice as have great usefulness to right-wing revivalists of the Hindutva movement to state that sati is dignified, traditional and virtuous, not a reflection of the low status ..."

Tags:India, tradition, misogyny, women, wife

Abstract
The paper relates that since the late 1980s, various cases of Sati have been reported in India as praised by the rightwing Hindu chauvinist Hindutva movement that is rejected by Indian feminists for its ideas on women. The paper provides an account of Sati as indicative of other customs according low status or harm to women. The paper addresses what expatriate Indians can do and the need to discuss Sati, female infanticide, or feticide as they tend to be ignored.

From the Paper
"Westerners can be fascinated by the sati commonly described as `widow-burning' in Hindu society and that cases still do occur. The topic is one to underscore the egalitarian challenges faced in South Asia given that women continue to have a very different status and value. Indian feminists declare that the institution of sati shows social attitudes towards women, at large. In traditional society, sati was a special state entered into, a kind of grace attained by a widow by her immolation on her husband's funeral pyre."

Tags:hindutva, revivalism, sati