Abstract
This paper describes the role of women in ancient society, showing how the idea of women staying in the home is a false perception. According to the paper, the division of labor was a key marker for the beginning of settlements and the development of a society in the ancient world, but that division was not the same as domestic versus public life that we see today. The paper concludes by noting that women were often the key workers in agriculture, while the men were the hunters in ancient societies.

From the Paper
"We often see the role of women in society through history as a progression from more backward ideas about women staying in the home to the equality we strive for today, but that is a false perception. The division of labor was a key marker for the beginning of settlements and the development of a society in the ancient world, but that division was not the same as domestic versus public life that we see today. Women were often the key workers in agriculture, while the men were the hunters in ancient societies. As settlements became more fixed and more complex, the roles for each changed to reflect this difference. Women were not necessarily relegated to a what we might consider a secondary role, as can be seen..."

Tags:women, egypt, india

Abstract
In this paper the author examines how British rule has made an impact on Indian politics. Making comparison to Abdullah Hussein's characters in "Weary Generations", the author suggests that British rule, in modern Indian politics, continues to be "an unhappy marriage that still is not broken". The second section of the paper discusses political institutions in contemporary India and their relevance, whilst the third section looks at Indian ancient civilization which the author suggests has led to a modern day philosophy of non-violence, religious tolerance. The paper concludes with a look at democracy in India as compared to that in China and Japan.

From the paper:

"The English made many external changes that led to the Indian people's desire and ability to become their own unified country. Although unification may never have happened without the influence of the British, it was the Indians themselves that eventually achieved their unity. The British could not completely unify India."

Tags:abdullah, hussein, weary, generations, cannadienne, ornamentalism, empire, capitalism, rule, of, law, democracy, colonial, dalit, protective, discrimination, phoolan, devi, criminalization, gandhi, sakas, huns, pathans, mughals, rabindranath, tagore, bharat, tirtha, pilgrimage, china

Abstract
This paper explains that the development of irrigation for agriculture required substantial centralized control by the society, which resulted in the development of a managerial state with a political power base and a prevailing religion. These hydraulic societies, the author reports, existed along the river valleys of Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Hebrews, China, India and Iran during the years between 1,500 and 330 B. C. E. The paper reviews the history of the hydraulic societies of Mesopotamia to year 1,500 B.C.E., Egypt from 3,000 to 900, the ancient Hebrews in Canaan to 800, China from 2,000 to 221, India from 2,000 to 200 and Iran to 330 (all dates are B.C.E.).

Table of Contents:
The Rise of Hydraulic Civilization
Mesopotamia: to 1500 B. C. E.
Egypt: 3000-900 B. C. E.
Hebrews: 800 B. C. E.
China: 2000-221 B. C. E.
India: 2000-200 B. C. E.
Iran: to 330 B. C. E.

From the Paper
"The Nile River presented Egypt with a relatively reliable resource of irrigation, transportation, and commerce; however, Egypt required laborers. Canaan, conversely, was primarily irrigated by precipitation and that was not labor intensive with regard to creating a society. Many of the problems that occurred were related to droughts that took place periodically. Unlike the nations that emerged in areas that had a reliable source of water, the ancient Hebrews usually existed as nomads in the wilderness and much like the present day Bedouins."

Tags:cities government nile, rice cultivation, achemenian empire

Abstract
This paper explains that the post-colonial culture of India, rampant with the demonstration of historical superiority of the British culture, includes the representation of the ancient history of the Indian region as dominated by a fictitious Aryan race that overthrew the Indus Valley people. The author points out that this myth is a clear demonstration of the attempt to bolster the idea of superiority, and therefore, permit the dominance over the Indian population during the colonial occupation. The paper relates that the myth itself can be recounted through "legitimate" literature of the early and mid 20th century, the Sanhita ("collection") of the "Rig-Veda", a purely lyrical assortment of songs, which the Hindus brought with them from their ancient homes on the banks of the Indus.

From the Paper
"The results of such a rethinking and rewriting of history are, as of yet, unknown; but the cultural identity of the Indian people will clearly be redefined by the new view of the events of the disappearance of the Indus Valley people. One of the most prominent British historians of the colonial and early post colonial period demonstrates the idea that there is little evidence of a real Aryan conquest. "Of the effects of the Aryan settlements in India itself in the earliest period, we have no real evidence beyond certain scattered allusions in Vedic literature, and some faint local traditions." "

Tags:ethnocentric, govindarajan, colonial, british, indus

Abstract
Some of the key features of both "democracy" and the American Constitution have their origins in ancient history. If one looks at Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, and India, we may discover traces of democratic thought that precipitated the rise of each of those lands and peoples. The paper shows, however, that many of the critical threads of Western political thought can be directly catalyzed by the very birth of Western society in the classical civilizations of Ancient Greece and Rome. The paper traces concepts of democracy and citizenship from ancient times and shows how they affected modern forms of government, in particular, the American Constitution and Britain's Houses of Lords and Commons.

From the Paper
"In effect, this republic-representative democracy was therefore established in which the people chose representatives to run the state for them. The Roman Republic was a government headed by elected leaders, yet real power was held by the Senate, which represented the upper class, and two consuls, who served as heads of state. If we examine Ancient Roman society even further, we can identify origins of the United States Constitution: the Bill of Rights. For instance, the rights of all citizens were protected by a code of laws known as the Twelve Tables of Law."

Tags:Enlightenment, Aristotle, House, of, Representatives, Plebians

Abstract
This paper presents a brief overview of ancient Egyptian culture, including a look at the role of the "Pharoah" and the writing system developed at that time. The development of ancient Indian culture over 3,500 years is outlined, and a discussion of ancient Chinese culture discussed, including the influence of Confucius on Chinese society.

From the Paper
"The civilizations of the Near East, especially that of Egypt, has captured reasonable attention of the scholars. The Egyptian civilization is considered as a mystery as the scholars are still making new discoveries about the religion, the colossal architecture of the region and the educational developments of that time. The Ancient Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, the Upper Egypt (also known as the Nile Valley) and the Lower Egypt (Nile Delta)
However, Egypt was unified in 3000 B.C., when Menes established his kingdom and developed Memphis as his capital. At this time, the central power was in the hands of the king and he was considered as the only individual who had direct contact with God. According to Egyptians beliefs, their king was divine and was even considered superior to the priests. The economic affairs of the whole kingdom were in the hands of the king and he was the owner of the state. Under the King, there was a well-established hierarchy of Royal family members, officials, governors and mayors. The rest of the community consisted of slaves, peasants and artisans."

Tags:Pharoah, pyramids, Dravids, Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Hinduism, Jain, Xia, Confucius

Abstract
A paper which explores the history of Muslims in India and Afghanistan from ancient times and until today. It shows Muslim influence on all sectors of society, including politics. The paper studies the persecution of Muslims in present day India and examines the rise of the Taliban to power in Afghanistan, its reign of terror and its defeat by the Americans after September 11th. Finally, the paper discusses the future of Muslims in both countries.

From the Paper
"In India, Hinduism is seen as a religion and way of life. Muslims who are living in India are under pressure to give up Islam and practice Hinduism. After the partition of India, thousands of Muslims were murdered or forced to leave India. Since then, militant Hindu organizations feel that Muslims have their own place Pakistan and have no right to live in India."

Tags:Babar, Moghul, Empire, Deen-e-ilah, Shah, Wali-Allah, Madaaris, Mahmud, of, Ghazna, Dost, Muhammad, Babrak, Karmal, 911

Abstract
This paper compares the history and development of the Mediterranean civilization to that of the history and development of the civilization of the Near East. The paper compares the political, economic, and social realms, cultural and intellectual ideas, and values and institutions of both civilizations and looks at how each differed in its impact on the creation of Western civilization, as well as the degree of that impact.

From the Paper
"Civilization in the ancient Mediterranean (1000 B.C.E. - 500 C.E.) arose out of a number of important causes. First, the location of the Mediterranean area between three continents, and the influence of civilizations like Mesopotamia, India and China nearby. Further, the excellent communication by sea, the mild climate, and the invention of writing were important factors in encouraging the development of civilization in the area (Poiycratis)."

Tags:ancient, mesopotamia, india, china, egyptians, hebrews, iran, afghanistan, sumerians

Abstract
The paper explores representative artwork that neatly encapsulates the cultures from which they sprang. In each instance, be it Ganesh, Chinese ritual bronzes, or sculptures portraying Amida, the artwork that the paper discusses has provided unique subtleties and nuances that reflect the subtleties and nuances of their respective cultures. No less importantly the aforementioned artwork illustrates the intersection between art and religion and the paper discusses how religion gives shape to both a society and to its artwork.

From the Paper
"Finding the Souls of Ancient Societies in Their Artwork: the Artistic Creations of Pre-Modern India, China and Japan It is commonly said and written that the artwork of a society is a mirror into that society. The following paper will examine this proposition by looking at Indian Ganesh artwork, representative Chinese artwork from the Bronze Age and, not least of all, Buddhist artwork that captures the spirit of ancient Japan. What should become when reviewing each of these artifacts is that a society's collective soul is often to be found in the artwork it produces - at least if the observer is prepared to look hard enough and long enough for it. The imagery associated with the Indian deity Ganesh is quite astounding."

Tags:india, china, japan

Abstract
The paper analyzes and compares three historians' exploration of the distinctive, ancient origins and purposes of the Hindu caste system from the early 19th to the late 20th centuries. The paper looks at Julius Lipner's "Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices", John Hutton's "Caste in India" and James Mill's "The History of British India". The paper shows how each historian approached the subject in different manners, utilizing contrasting sources and historical philosophies, in order to establish their respective viewpoints.

Outline:
Julius Lipner's "Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices" (1994)
John Hutton's "Caste in India" (1946)
James Mill's "The History of British India" (1817)
Conclusion

From the Paper
"As human beings, we attempt with varying degrees of success to understand the multiple paradigms of existence that shape our lives in both subtle and profound ways. These paradigms manifest themselves as society, religion, economics, politics, and in other ways that constitute our reality. For the modern historian, it is an impossible yet persistent goal to step back from these various paradigms and describe and interpret events of the past with full objectivity. The impossibility of objectivity, at least in historical scholarship, stems from the inability to completely separate oneself from one's emotions, prejudices, and overall context in time. Indeed, total objectivity implies the unfeasible detachment from the characteristics of our humanness. To believe in the ability to attain full objectivity in historical study and authorship is to imagine human history as a science with clear cause and effect relationships."

Tags:Brahmins, purity, morality, class, society