Abstract In his book "Everyday Life in Early ImperialChina During the Han Period", Michael Loewe provides us with a social history that contributes much to our understanding of China during this period. We see an emerging picture that is one where a variety of contemporary communities developed independently in various parts of China. Loewe also shows how far these cultures influenced each other and also how they influenced later cultures in China.
Abstract Confucianism, the dominant worldview in ImperialChina, placed tremendous value on social order and hierarchical relationships. It envisaged an order society with the Emperor at the top and his authority expressed through a Confucian bureaucracy administering Confucian laws. The realities of daily life contradicted this model. Periodic rebellions, banditry, human avarice and a host of other factors undermined the Confucian ideals. This paper examines a variety of primary sources to identify countercurrents to the dominant Confucian ideology in ImperialChina.
Abstract This paper discusses how China has seen a number of changes in terms of history and power over the years. It examines the changing nature of these associations and explores the relationship between history and political authority from the Shang Dynasty to the Western Han. It also shows how that, while changes occurred in the political-administrative area of China's history, many of the philosophies established were instrumental in setting a pattern for future empires.
Outline
Introduction
Political Power
The Shang Dynasty
Western and Eastern Zhou Dynasties
First Imperial Period
The Han Dynasty
Shamans and Ancient China Conclusion
From the Paper "Daoism, or the study of nature's patterns, has been in existence since the earliest Chinese eras. Historians and scholars dispute the concept that ?these ideas did not evolve with time like human beings are supposed to have, but that they sprung, full-formed, in a culture that long preceded the historical land of ?China,? even the early China that scratched their versions of these earlier ideas into the famous "oracle bones" (home.attbi.com/~piannone/o-s/ch-innerhist.html).? Feudal governments in North China, which existed during the era of the oracle bones, were different from the original daoists. During this era, fortune telling was popular among kings and queens, and their court sorcerers were educated in rumor."
Abstract This paper examines the transformations in political structures that took place in the first part of the 20th century in China and Europe, in particular the area of Austro-Hungarian Empire, which was territorially-reconstructed after World War I. The paper points out that China was an Empire for two thousand years and Austro-Hungary was Europe's oldest great power. The paper argues that nationalism was the leading cause of the changes that took place. While imperialChina stayed territorially more or less the same, its political structure changed significantly. The Austro-Hungarian Empire on the other hand ceased to exist, and the Empire collapsed, much like most European Empires at the time, giving birth to new nations and various forms of governments. Noting the general trend of change in both China and Europe, the paper concludes that, as empires crumbled, they were replaced by several forms of governments ranging from democracies to totalitarian regimes.
From the Paper "There were many consequences of World War I, including the ten million casualties in the armies (Esler, 2004). Also, this war significantly changed the map of Europe. The Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed and in its place several new nations were born. The Slavic nationalists were somewhat appeased by the treaty of Versailles. Yugoslavia was formed, unifying Southern Slavs, with its core in Serbia. Czechoslovakia too was a Slavic country formed with the break up of Austro-Hungary (Sontag, 1971). The Russian Empire crumbled and was replaced with a communist revolution and regime. The treaty of Versailles also significantly weakened Germany. It was stripped of its colonies, disarmed and forced to pay reparations. Parts of it were given to Poland and the Czech Republic."
This paper examines the rich history, economy and culture of China as depicted in John Bryan Starr's "Understanding China: A Guide to China's Economy, History and Political Structure."
Abstract This paper reviews "Understanding China: A Guide to China's Economy, History and Political Structure" by John Bryan Starr. This paper discusses China's ancient culture and its emergence as one of the foremost powers in the modern world. This paper focuses on China's recent admission to the World Trade Organization and as well as its economy which is set to become the largest in the world within the next few years. The writer of this paper examines China's political history and contends that in spite of the country's numerous transformations, the structure of the government is today fundamentally identical with what it was under the later imperial dynasties. Today, there is no emperor at the top, but instead a small committee of the leading members of various political parties who hold much the same position. Although there had been significant changes in China's economy, few political changes transpired. The communists still hold a monopoly of power and although its economic policies scarcely seem to be communist anymore, it does not intend to relax its political grip.
From the Paper "Starr contends that China remains one of the most self-contained and hence inscrutable countries in the world. It has an ancient culture of major historical importance, and has been emerging as one of the foremost powers of the modern world. It is the third largest country in the world and certainly the most populous, with about one-fifth of the world's total population. Modern communications make it as easy to reach Beijing from London or New York as it is to get to Singapore or Nairobi. Yet China remains little known and poorly understood; few foreigners learn its language or study its history and culture. Although foreign trade and tourism have increased dramatically in the last decade, they are only very slowly leading to any changes in foreign perceptions of China."
Abstract This paper examines the development of nationalism in modern China, from the Han response to the Qing government to anti-imperialist agitation and republicanism under the guidance of Sun Yatsen. It looks briefly at the New Culture Movement and the role of secret societies such as the Tongmeng hui.
From the paper:
"Nationalism has been a defining ideology in the creation of Modern China, promoted at first by a series of secret societies, and later by both the Guomingdang and the Chinese Communist Party to achieve different ends. It was central to the early student movements, and the May Fourth Movement, and nationalism was the first of Sun Yatsen's Three Principles of the People. In its early stages, Chinese nationalism was based on ethnic and racial identity, and centered on Han identity, however over time the significance of ethnic identity has decreased. Foreign influence in the conceptualization of Chinese nationalism has been problematic to developing a clear understanding of the movement; despite this, nationalism developed in a particularly Chinese manner."
Abstract The paper refers to the Opium trade and Opium Wars as a collective tragedy whose obverse was the arrival of new thinking to challenge the corrupt Manchu status quo. The paper offers an account of missionary areas, RC and Protestant, new ideas, social reform, literacy and inspiration for the Taiping movement. The paper discusses whether overall the Christian influence is effective or not and if it brought new ideas to sectors in need of support and hope for the future. The paper stresses that it is a significant period in the modern religious history of China.
From the Paper "The Opium Wars of 1839-1842, and 1856-1860 are discussed as tragic experiences in modern Chinese history. However, in this paper, it is possible to see conflict as having some beneficial results. In the aftermath of the 1st Opium War of 1839-1842, the Chinese were forced to concede that the old imperial system could not contend with European power. After the second Opium War of 1856-1860, convenient ideas of being a superior civilization were put to rest, as China became inundated with new ideas as distributed by expanded European trading privileges, the arrival of Christian missionaries, and the rise of Hong Kong as a window on the outside world."
Abstract The paper examines the degree to which a range of literature characters in "The Dream of the Red Chamber" manage to find fulfillment in terms of spirituality or sensuality. The paper also provides Spence's account of women. The paper makes a reference to more recent treatments of women in China, as per feminist studies, in contrast with what these works show us that is not always apparent in Ching culture.
From the Paper "There is a tendency in the West to view Chinese women as continually oppressed by their society, never able to find self-fulfillment in a civilization that did not value them highly, or provide them with many choices. However, in examining a variety of literature, one finds that this was not always the case. There was considerable room for women to find self-expression and self-development, within the confines of the surrounding society. The works below also indicate a change in society in the 18th century, the Ching dynasty's reform taking effect but one sees, in most interesting ways, the pull of the past, too."
Abstract This paper discusses the relationship between imperialism and capitalism from the time of the Spanish Empire to the present. The author describes both forces--capitalism and imperialism--and argues that imperialism is the monopoly stage of capitalism. The paper relates the purpose of Spanish imperialism and how the forms of imperialism have changed over time.
From the Paper "For many world scholars, the form of slavery, begun by the English in the seventeenth century and continued into the nineteenth century by the Americans, is merely the most naked form of imperialism. It is the domination of an oppressor ..."
Abstract This paper looks at imperialism in the 20th century. It takes a look at both the pro-imperialism and anti-imperialism points of view. Included are the pro-imperialism ideologies of Teddy Roosevelt and Adolph Hitler and the anti-imperialism arguments of Frantz Fanon and Mahandas Gandhi,as well as others. The political ideas of expansionism and protectionism are explored.
From the Paper "As the 20th century unfolded, the struggle for and against imperialism continued escalate and became a dominant issue on the world political stage. While political figures in countries as disparate as Nazi Germany and the United States supported and justified imperialism, those who were subjects of it willingly put their lives on the line to oppose it and, hopefully, bring it to an end. For the most part, the pro-imperialist, based their arguments on economic need and/or racism. Such is true in the cases of Jules Ferry, Theodore Roosevelt, and Adolph Hitler. On the other hand, those who stood against imperialism based their arguments on human rights and self-determination. Just before the dawn of the 20th century, both Ferry of France and Roosevelt of the United States led the charge for expansionism by their respective countries."
Abstract This paper examines the themes and issues presented in Robert Johnson's book "British Imperialism: Histories and Controversies". The paper also analyzes the historiography of British imperialism and discusses the consequences of colonization.
From the Paper "Johnson's purpose in this book is to explain some of the histories and controversies surrounding British imperialism, a concept he believes that was continuously evolving, was somewhat incoherent and even contradictory. Johnson considers his book an introduction to British imperialism, not a history of the British Empire. As such some of the content is presented in outline form rather than in depth. However presented, the content supports his aim of explaining how some of the historiography..."
Abstract The paper discusses three theories about the New Imperialism policies of Europe and the United States. The paper explains the causes of the New Imperialism policies, including economic reasons, emergence of nation states and nationalism, cultural and religious motives.
From the Paper "The phrase "New Imperialism" has historically been used to describe the various competing imperialist policies of Europe and the United States at the end of the Nineteenth and beginning of the Twentieth centuries. This new imperialism was different in a number of ways from the old practices, not the least of which was the fact that it was widely recognized and criticized in its own time. There has been much debate within the field concerning what the actual causes of the new imperialist era were."
Tags: new imperialism, hayes, hobson, lenin, ferry, bismarck, kipling
Abstract The paper explores how the new European imperialism of the 19th century relied on various stages of industrial, scientific and technological advancements that were causes for this to occur. The paper explains how the process of world domination relied on quicker methods of mass production, greater medical advancements and the ideological construct of Darwinism that was used to validate the colonization of so-called lesser races. The paper points out how before the 19th century, nations such as Great Britain could not as quickly produce or technologically be able to sustain the mass invasions that they had accomplished in this century.
From the Paper "This historical analysis will analyze the new imperialism of the 19th century and the various causes that helped to change the human condition in European history. In the advent of the industrial age, one can realize the growing reliance on electricity, machines, and the scientific advances that produced population growth in Europe and America. In many ways, these were the causes of the far easier usage of energy sources, mass production, and population growth, which powerful countries used in having access to a new global imperial agenda. With the advance of science and technology countries such as Great Britain could now exploit and militarily control lesser nations. These are the various causes of the new imperialism that changed the way powerful countries controlled the world in the 19th century.
This paper examines "Big Dragon China's Future: What it Means for Business, the Economy, and the Global Order" by Daniel Burstein and Arne de Keijzer who both contend that China is well on its way to becoming the world's largest economy.
Abstract This paper reviews Burstein and de Keijzer's "Big Dragon China's Future: What it Means for Business, the Economy, and the Global Order" in which both authors predict that by the 2030s China will be the world's largest economy. This paper discusses the various companies that have suffered due to the shifting politics of foreign policy between China being in favor one day and out the next. This paper also details the views of Jeffrey Garten, a writer for "Harvard Business Review" who sees China as enticement for foreign investors, yet stresses caution should be used in developing any business relationship with China. This well-written paper covers several areas regarding China's economy including a U.S. initiative supporting China's membership in the World Trade Organization, expansion of U.S. public-private partnerships to invest and help solve particular problems in China and development of China's policy mutually with U.S. allies. "Big Dragon" profiles many individual Chinese entrepreneurs and others who are bringing a new China into being. This paper also focuses on Zhang Wei, one of China's more successful entrepreneurs, who went from government researcher to heading a company employing 400 in only three years. Despite the differences between practices in China and other countries, many corporations are willing to take a big gamble on China, seeing that their future is dependent on their performance in China.
From the Paper "Over the course of his history, Zhang has captured the essence of the Chinese business world of "catch-as-catch-can". His corporation has various types of holdings, often-different one from the other. Zhang has bridged the gap across the Pacific with the United States with his position of "master franchise holder in China" of an American company, Fun World. What makes this situation particularly unique is that it is one of the first companies in China "to buy an interest in a U.S. company." At the time Big Dragon was written, Zhang was "negotiating an arrangement that would shift manufacturing of all the equipment for the centers to China." Zhang hopes to take the U.S. company over altogether, including the export of the concept to "other countries and selling the franchisees Chinese-made equipment." Zhang has encountered some problems along the way, problems that are compounded by China's culture and lack of laws, which govern specific business issues. One is that franchisees have stolen the company name and have opened their own centers."
Abstract This paper researches the relationship between the United States and China in regards to trading policies. A brief description of the United States' foreign policy is provided followed by an examination of the US-China trade relation from 1979 to present. The context of the research centers around the four p's in trading; power, principles, prosperity and peace and how in each area China has maintained such variables in trading. The other issues that are discussed as integral to the relationship of US-China trade are US-Soviet relations in regards to the China Card, Tiananmen Square, human rights, and labor standards. The paper concludes that the relationship between the U.S and China as described in the paper is teetering and yet, because of the WTO and foreign investments such as Boeing, trade with China is inevitable.
Outline:
China's Trade
China's Trade Relations
China Card
Tiananmen Square Protests of 1989
Conclusion
From the Paper "The concept of trade between countries is one that has been prevalent since the shipping industry of early China. In fact China and its role with the WTO is one in which there exists strain. China became a member of the WTO in December of 2001. China had been an original member of GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) but has since declined any efforts towards globalization. However, since its inclusion with the WTO in 2001 China is under specific WTO regulations. These regulations are highlighted as nondiscrimination in trading policies, market opening, transparency and predictability, undistorted trade, and preferential treatment towards developing countries."
