Abstract
In this article the writer notes that speech as a phenomenon is only characteristic of humans. The introduction of speech and language is an event that cannot be compared to anything in human history. The writer points out that speech and language opened the door for easy and clear communication, thus enabling the distribution of knowledge, feelings and experiences among individual humans. The writer discusses that language plays an important role not only on the broad level of human race as a whole, but also on the level of every individual in the human race. It is not a static phenomenon. The writer notes that language changes within societies we live in but also the individuals within the societies change the language as they move from one environment to another and as they gather new experiences and knowledge. The writer concludes that language is not only a medium of communication. It also has deep significance for the cultural and social identity of an individual.

From the Paper
"The foundation of language and speech is of course in our physiological ability to express ourselves vocally. However, even though every one of us has this ability, we cannot start expressing ourselves verbally using spoken language from the moment we are born. We rather learn to speak, we learn to use the language in everyday life much like the humans did at some point in history. However, today we learn to speak with the help of our closest environment which is most often family. The first words or "vocal signs" we learn to use are often tied to the need for sharing our desires in the way most part of environment can understand and interpret. Simply by replacing mute, gesticulate "signs" of pointing, making faces or dancing, or "signs" of crying and grunting; with the "verbal sign" "angry" humans manage to establish contact with their broader environment."

Tags:spoken, vocal, signs, contact

Abstract
This paper examines how the ideas of language acquisition, comprehension, the creation of language, and the ability to hear, speak, read, and write language are all of great interest in the field of cognitive psychology. While something so fundamental to human societal function may not initially seem something of interest to psychology, it is through the cognitive processing of language that humans can communicate with one another.


Outline:
Levels of Language
Phonemes
Lexicon
Sentences
Texts
Features of Language
Communicative
Arbitrary
Structured
Generative
Dynamic
Language and Cognitive Psychology - Conclusion

From the Paper
" As the lowest level of language, phonemes tend to correspond to letters or symbols in the language's alphabet (Willingham, 2007). In English, as with many languages, some letters actually have multiple phonemes. According to Willingham (2007), the English language has roughly 46 phonemes, though the exact count is not universally agreed upon.
"In addition to phonemes are what are referred to as allophones. These are phonemes that are slightly different from one another, but are not necessarily separate phonemes in one language, even if they are in another (Willingham, 2007). This can lead to difficulties with learning other languages, but can sometimes even create difficulty in understanding regional variations of the same language (Willingham, 2007)."

Tags:Phonemes, Lexicon

Abstract
This paper explains that, although there is a larger amount of evidence supporting the notion that human language develops from natural and inborn processes, socialization and learning is important to the development of language. The paper first describes the basic components of language, which are classified as content morphemes and grammatical morphemes. The paper then presents research to support both arguments that language is innate and that the development of human language is closely linked to the development and transformation of human cognition.

From the Paper
"From day one, we seem naturally equipped to develop and explore language. When a new infant is born, he/she is immediately able to distinguish his/her mother's voice. Young infants start to babble at a very young age as if they are trying to communicate with one's caregivers. Amazingly enough, deaf children initially start to babble as well, but eventually stop verbal communication because they do not hear any feedback. An interesting aspect of language development is an infant's ability to be sensitive to all languages when under the age of 6 months."

Tags:inborn, morphemes, non-communicative, devices, cognition

Abstract
This paper explains that regressions are preformed all the time in mathematics, which involve the division of numbers into innate and precise formal units; however, this is not a common practice in human language other than by theorists of deconstruction techniques. The author points out that the deconstruction of language, both verbal and non-verbal, has been a practice of linguists, philosophers and critical theorists for many years. The paper relates that verbal and non-verbal human communication is comprised of both signs and symbols,which together form a recognized code, or what laymen commonly refer to as a language. The author underscores that there is a significant problem in reaching some consensus on what constitutes a verbal sign or symbol because of significant confusion regarding both meaning and intent.

From the Paper
"The solution to developing a better understanding of the relationship between sign and symbol in order to make the case for a deep similarity between human language and mathematics is to develop a more pragmatic framework within which to develop a more complete paradigm of the communicative process of verbal and non-verbal communication. Devlin does this when he speaks of the grammar generated, deep structure strings in the text of the "Language in the Mind". Some theorists say this need is a distinction that must be better developed between components of a sign to define as the signified and the signifier."

Tags:signs, symbols, regressions, deconstruction, grammatical

Abstract
This paper explains that, despite the ubiquity of human linguistic ability, pinning down exactly how language helps people and how people use it is not at all a straightforward task. The author points out that Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget and Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky examined how children acquire language and the relationship of thinking and language learning. The paper relates that the comparisons of bilingual and monolingual children, as well as comparisons of bilingual children of varying levels of development, indicate that bilingualism can lead to superior performance on a variety of intellectual skills.

From the Paper
"It is clear that normal children acquire a language that reflects their particular linguistic environment. A child brought up in Japan acquires a version of Japanese. The same child brought up in Brazil acquires a version of Portuguese. So, these languages must in some sense reflect some of the same underlying innate principles. Languages are basically the same in structure, up to certain parameters, for example, whether the head of a phrase goes at the beginning of a phrase or at the end. Children do not have to learn the basic principles; they only need to set the parameters."

Tags:meta-linguistic, relativity, mentalese, bilingualism, immersion

Abstract
This paper explains that the three elements of language " abstractness, grammar, and cultural ramifications " are not unique to human language, but merely more advanced or merely more evident from our perspective than the language of animals. The author points out that chimps and parrots in laboratory settings seem capable of grasping abstract terms (such as "mad" or "bad" or "blue"), generating new combinations of words to express new ideas, and referring to distant events or objects. The paper relates that animals may be more driven by instinct than by learned behavior, yet they show a propensity, in many cases, to learn language.

From the Paper
"Grammar is one of the strictest supposed differences between human and animal languages. Grammar involves the organization of discrete words into complex sentences that have specific required orders and syntaxes. Even human sign language tends to require certain specific syntaxes. While animals appear capable of understanding syntax, there is little evidence that they use it in communication (though it is difficult to prove a negative). According to one influential chimp research, Terrace, "No chimpanzee has learned sign language. They've certainly learned some gestures, but sign language is not just a system of gestures. It's a full, grammatical language with its own systematic grammar, like Latin". The lack of grammar is evident in cases such as that of Koko, one of the stars of the talking-chimp movement."

Tags:abstractness, chimps, instinct, learn, laboratory

Abstract
This paper relates that one often hears people say, "I am good with languages but useless at math" and vice versa as if the two were entirely opposite ways of thinking. The author points out that closer examination of human language and mathematics reveals a surprising number of similarities. The paper states that the most obvious similarity between the two is that both natural human languages and mathematics have a formal syntax i.e. a set of rules that governs them.

From the Paper
"Human languages and mathematics seem on the face of it to be very different things. One often hears people say "I am good with languages, but useless at math", and vice versa, as if the two were entirely opposite ways of thinking. However, closer examination reveals a surprising number of similarities. The most obvious similarity between the two is that both natural human languages and mathematics have a formal syntax, i.e. a set of rules that governs them. In the case of language, this is a set of rules that governs how the words may be put together. "

Tags:human, machine, language

Abstract
This paper relates that both natural human language and the language of mathematics have a precise formal syntax. The author points out that they both offer meaning in the form of semantics and rely upon a body of commonly held assumptions. The paper concludes that both language and mathematics formalizes the informal in order to facilitate the communication and comprehension of meaning.

From the Paper
"Upon considering the relationship between natural human language and mathematics, it becomes evident that a number of similarities exist, for both natural human language and the language of mathematics have a precise formal syntax, both offer meaning in the form of semantics, and both rely upon a body of commonly held assumptions. Each of them formalizes the informal in order to facilitate the communication and comprehension of meaning. Lewis Carroll offers examples of the relationship between natural human language and mathematics in his dialogue between the Tortoise and Achilles, for their conversation reveals how linguistic uses of logic are similar to mathematical equations."

Tags:math, and, semantics

Abstract
This paper explores the definitions of language and lexicon by further evaluating the key features of language. The four levels of language structure and processing are described in separate sections of the paper. The role of language processing in cognitive psychology is also discussed. The author concludes that as humans, language is our primary tool of communication and a quite a fascinating cognitive function.

Language
Language and Lexicon
Key Features of Language Structure and Processing
Properties of Language
Language Processing in Cognitive Psychology

From the Paper
"Language structure is most usefully thought of as having four levels. These levels are speech sounds, known as phonemes, words, sentences, and groups of sentences, or texts (Willingham, 2007). The lowest level is an analysis of the sounds that comprise words. Individual sounds of speech are called phonemes, which roughly correspond to the letters of the alphabet. In the English language there are roughly 46 phonemes, and about 200 that are used worldwide (Willingham, 2007). "

Tags:psychology, language processing, cognitive psychology, phonemes, speech pathology

Abstract
This paper examines the various elements of language and memory that are specific to humans, further describing the various categories of memory. First, the paper considers episodic and semantic memory. Then, it discusses the basic function of language in humans and how language led to the development of a more complex brain. Next, it addresses the stages of language production, with an emphasis on the processing approach. Finally, the paper discusses the relationship between semantic memory and language production.

Outline:

The Nature and Function of Semantic Memory
The Basic Functions of Language
Stages of Language Production
The Relationship between Semantic Memory and Language Production

From the Paper
"For example, the episodic memory of witnessing the assassination of President John F. Kennedy in person is inseparable from the circumstances prevailing at the moment of memory formation and most individuals who witnessed that tragic event cannot discuss that event without vividly recalling their emotional reaction at the time that memory was established. However, individuals who learned of the same event from history books and televised documentaries generally do not associate the knowledge of the event with any of the specific circumstances of the moment when their factual memory of the event was formed. By definition, semantic memory allows the individual to remember a much broader range of information than that which is experienced personally."

Tags:episodic memory, semantic memory, animal communication, phonology, morphology