Abstract
This paper provides a history of the Hubble Space Telescope. The paper first notes that the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) was named after the astronomer Edwin Hubble and that it is presently in orbit around the Earth, just outside the planet's atmosphere, providing a great advantage over telescopes that are based on the surface. The paper then looks at how the Hubble was launched in 1990 and has grown to be one of the more valuable astronomical instruments in history. In addition, the paper looks at how breakthroughs in astrophysics have been made with the assistance of the increased abilities allowed with the HST.

Outline:
Introduction
Conception, Design, and Aims
Proposals and Funding
Engineering and Construction
Support from Earth
New Instruments and Servicing Missions
Servicing Missions 1, 2, 3A, and 3B
Scientific Results and Data
Astronomical Impact
Transmission to Earth
Use of the Telescope
Scheduling Observations
Observations by Amateur Astronomers
Conclusion

From the Paper
"In 1983, a struggle for power between NASA and the entire scientific community led to the establishment of the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI). Run by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA), the STScI is located on the Johns Hopkins University campus in Baltimore, Maryland. The STScI has the primary responsibility of operating the telescope and delivering data to the astronomy community. Engineering support is located nearby, just south of the STScI, in Greenbelt at the GSFC under NASA's management. Since it was launched, the HST operation has been monitored on a twenty-four hour basis, seven days per week by four separate teams of controllers referred to as Hubble's Flight Operations Team (Hubble Space Telescope, 2007)."

Tags:astrophysics, earth, planets

Abstract
This paper discusses the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), the first Earth-orbiting reflecting telescope. The paper examines how the Hubble Space Telescope serves a vital function in increasing our knowledge of the universe. The paper explains that since its launch in 1990, despite several crucial problems, it has revealed a universe full of mysterious bodies, nebula, star systems and galaxies and has expanded the possibilities that humankind is not alone in the universe.

From the Paper
"The first scientific idea for a telescope such as the HST came about in 1946 when Lyman Spitzer issued a proposal for a space telescope with a primary mirror between sixteen and fifty feet in diameter. Throughout the 1960's and 1970's, with the ultraviolet observatories OAO-2, OAO 3 and the IUE in the planning stages, the space telescope remained only a dream, due to the lack of technology. Yet Spitzer did not give up, for by the 1970's he had offered another proposal for a space telescope which would be able to provide images of very faint objects as contrasted to ground-based telescopes which suffer from distortion due to the Earth's atmosphere. According to Spitzer, such a telescope would not "supplement our present ideas of the universe we live in, but rather would uncover new phenomena not yet imagined and perhaps would modify profoundly our basic concepts of space and time" (42)."

Tags:planets, stars, galaxies

From the Paper
"The Hubble Space Telescope is a cooperative program of the European Space Agency (ESA) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for the operation of a long lived space based observatory for the benefit of the international astronomical community. The idea was first developed in the 1940s, designed and built in the 1970s and 80s, and made operational only in the 1990s. This was to be a different type of mission for NASA, to create a long term space based observatory. In order to accomplish this goal and to protect the spacecraft against instrument and equipment failures, NASA had always planned on regular servicing missions. The Hubble has special grapple fixtures, 76 handholds, and is stabilized in all three axes. The Hubble is a 2.4 meter reflecting telescope which was deployed in low ..."

Abstract
This paper compares the Hubble Space Telescope to its potential successor, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), in terms of their cost effectiveness. The paper looks at the technology of both telescopes to see which will bring continue to bring back the most valuable information, their respective missions, the cost of deploying and maintaining them in orbit, and the cost of repairs, if any, of the telescopes to determine the cost effectiveness of the telescopes.

From the Paper
"Ever since its launch in 1990, the Hubble telescope has been orbiting the Earth at 600 kilometers above, bringing valuable information and photos from space. Its history goes back to 1977, when the Congress approved the project funds. However, operations didn't take off until 1981, when the Space Telescope Science Institute was founded, designed especially for the production and research of the Hubble Space Telescope."

Tags:deployed, gyroscope, mirror, universe, data, observations, traveled, astronomical, targets

Abstract
A paper on the development of the telescope by Galileo Galilei. The author discusses the many theories borne from Galileo's observations of the heavens.

From the Paper
"Centuries ago, a tube and two lenses were the only essentials needed to start the journey into the sky. This instrument, called a telescope, expanded the human vision and brought new light from beyond their world and beyond the already visible sky. It allowed mankind to explore the most distant places imaginable without leaving their backyard. Astronomers have studied the stars for centuries, and, with the aid of a telescope, have discovered new entities that exist in the universe. The first person to use this tool for astronomical purposes was Galileo Galilei. He was the first to turn a telescope up into the stars and make observations. His telescope was crude and not as powerful as telescopes today, but it was effective during his time. Although modern telescopes are far more powerful and extremely effective due to electronics, mirrors, and other enhancements to the design of the telescope, the observations and discoveries made by Galileo and his rudimentary telescope are just as significant as those made by telescopes today and in the future."

Tags:hubble, space, telescope, telescopes

Abstract
At the age of 9, Hubble's family moved to Chicago. Hubble attended high school in the city, where he entertained his fascination for science and astronomy. From a very early age Hubble was "fascinated" by "mysterious new worlds" (ibid), and spent his childhood reading Jules Verne and Henry Rider Haggard, who wrote 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea and King Solomon's Mines, respectively.

From the Paper
Introduction: Early Beginnings Hubble's full name was Edwin Powell Hubble. He was born in Marshfield, a small town in Missouri in the United States, on November 19^th, 1889 (Edwin Hubble, 2002). At the age of 9, Hubble's family moved to Chicago. Hubble attended high school in the city, where he entertained his fascination for science and astronomy. From a very early age Hubble was "fascinated" by "mysterious new worlds" (ibid), and spent his childhood reading Jules Verne and Henry Rider Haggard, who wrote 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea and King Solomon's Mines, respectively.

Tags:edwin, hubble, biography

Abstract
This paper explains how to design a radio telescope that would be capable of monitoring electromagnetic radiation emitted from Mars for wavelengths longer than visible light.

From the Paper
"A telescope that has the capabilities of monitoring the electromagnetic radiation, which is wave-like energy that forms light, emitted from the surface of mars for wavelengths longer than visible light, would have to be a radio telescope. I would design it to have a large dish like the kind used for satellite TV, a focus point and a radio receiver. So that it could receive electromagnetic radiation emitted from the surface of Mars for wavelengths longer than visible light, I would want to..."

Tags:design, telescope, radio, electromagetic radiation

Abstract
This paper discusses how the many contributions of the space program over the last five decades have revolutionized the United States, balanced global powers and kept America at the forefront of economic growth. The intent of this paper is to discuss why America needs to aggressively invest in space exploration and programs. The paper further examines how from the many innovations from Apollo alone and the period of unprecedented economic growth that was attained, one can see that there is a strong return on investment in space programs for the U.S.

Outline:
Introduction
Apollo Program Contributions
Space Shuttle Innovations
Space Station: Global Collaboration Can Work
Conclusion

From the Paper
"Apollo programs progressed from the use of large, quadrille pads that lined the expansive halls of prime contractors Lockheed, Martin Marietta, McDonnell Douglas, Northrop and others (Pruitt, 33, 34) to the use of software-based constraint systems that could optimize development schedules on costing, deadlines, dependencies of subcontractors. The lessons learned from the Apollo program in project management is today also being used in complex design analysis and constraint modeling for transportation systems (NASA Innovation Analysis, 76). As is true of many of the process-based technological innovations from the space program, fundamental project management lessons learned were quickly transferred to the private sector programs for commercial aircraft. The generational jump and cost efficiency of Boeing over French competitor Airbus today can be attributed to the contributions of project management as an innovation process, as can the field of systems engineering. "

Tags:apollo, space, shuttle, station

Abstract
The paper discusses how various writers have approached understanding the way in which public space functions within an urban context. In particular, the paper looks at how class, race, gender, and physical ability have shaped access to public space. Specifically, it is noted how public space carves out various niches for various groups - and is also a space wherein various stereotypes are permitted to flourish for various groups.

From the Paper
"The concept of public space from an intersectional perspective: Public space within the urban context. The ensuing paper will discuss how various writers have approached understanding the way in which public space functions within an urban context. In particular, the paper will look at how class, race, gender, and physical ability have shaped access to public space. Specifically, it will be noted how public space carves out various niches for various groups - and is also a space wherein various stereotypes are permitted to flourish for various groups. As well, the paper will take issue with some..."

Tags:intersectional, perspective, space

Abstract
This paper discusses how the character of the development of military uses of space has changed since the end of the Cold War although the race for military development has not slowed down. The paper also touches on cooperation in the joint development of space stations. The aims and objectives of nations desiring to control space is also examined. The paper concludes with a look at future military uses of space.

From the Paper
"Traveling to moon and beyond had always been the passion of the humankind. The journey towards unlimited frontiers of space started with Russian USSR Sputnik which was followed by USA's Apollo spacecraft. Several advanced nations also followed in the footsteps of the pioneers by launching several spacecrafts for civilian purposes, survey meteorological communication and so forth. The military use of space was on the high agenda of the super powers during Cold War. The military use of space was formally introduced..."

Tags:space, military, Spunik, Apollo spacecraft, Cold War, Star Wars missile defense