Abstract
This paper explains that, although Russian politics may appear to be chaotic, several factors underlie the problems in Russia, such as the history, the republics and regions and the diversity of the various groups involved. The author points out that, during the long, conflicted drafting process of the new constitution from June 1990 to November 1993, attention was often focused on the highly visible, disputed separation-of-powers doctrine; however, the process of drafting a new constitution for Russia also became protracted by the less conspicuous but progressively contentious, division-of-powers issue. The paper relates that Yeltsin's actions during the 1991 coup did much to bring democracy to Russia but he did not lived up to such ideals; even though plagued by ill health, Yeltsin's competence as a leader had long been suspect and corruption, crime and economic malaise flourished in Russia.

From the Paper
"The EU foreign ministers expressed their support for the Council of Europe's continuing cooperation with and assistance to Russia under the condition that Russia abides by its commitments. They acknowledged the efforts made by the Russian authorities for having the presence of Council of Europe experts in Russia and their promise of allowing free access by the International Red Cross to the detention camps in Chechnya. Portuguese Foreign Minister Jaime Gama and EU high representative of common foreign and defense policy Javier Solana briefed the foreign ministers about their recent trip to Moscow, where they met with President-elect Vladimir Putin and Foreign Minister Igor Ivanov."

Tags:diversity, yeltsin, eu, separation-of-powers, two-tier

Abstract
This paper discusses the life and works of E.E. Cummings, born Edward Estlin Cummings. The paper specifically discusses the history of his writing career. It looks at the content of some of his poetry and how this changed with his different life experiences. The paper discusses Cumming's writing style and language and provides examples of some of the misspellings, phonetic words and phrases he used to represent a particular dialect.

From the Paper
"Many of his poems are in the form of sonnets, and he has made reference of the blues form and acrostics. The themes his poems tend to follow were that of love, nature, and the world. His poems are also often full of sarcasm and ridicule. While his poetic forms resemble romantic traditions, his work collectively shows a particular characteristic of language and logic. He had a way of single words into larger phrases and sentences. Some of his most popular and striking poems were purely syntactic. (Kennedy 1984)"
"Among his poems, he had a tendency to use free verse with no concern for rhyme or meter as well as identifiable sonnet structure with an elaborate rhyme format. Several of his poems made no sense unless read out loud due to the animated style of words, letters, and punctuation scattered across the pages. But once read out loud, the message comes clear and solid to the reader. He used writing to literally paint a picture for its readers in a lot of his poetry. (Kennedy 1984)"

Tags:misspelling, dialect, sonnet, theme

Abstract
This paper examines how in their article, "Implementing Assessment and Improving Undergraduate Writing: One Department's Experience," Russel Olwell and Ronald Delph discuss how they used the writing as process model to assess and aid students in an undergraduate history course. It also looks at how the results of the assessment showed several weaknesses that undergraduate writers often exhibit in their writing and how instead of reflecting poor writing skills, the authors suggest that this inability reflects the undergraduates' thinking. The paper also looks at the author's implementation of writing as process model.

From the Paper
"Because the authors of this article are history, not composition, teachers, the article has all the more significance. While college writers are taught to research, write, and revise in composition classes, professors in other departments often turn a blind eye to writing. This article suggests that other departments do see the value of being able to write about one's field of study in a thought-provoking way. Further, the article gives even more insight into the world of undergraduate writers, their values, their strengths, and their weaknesses, suggesting that their frustrations with writing spring from even deeper reservoirs. In fact, this is the way in which this article has introduced me to new ideas. This can be abundantly clear in the authors' discussion of the thesis statement in undergraduate students. "

Tags:history, process, model

Abstract
The paper examines Thompson's work and writing, including those for which he was criticized. Thompson spent many years studying the Mayan hieroglyphic writing system. The paper studies Thompson's work in respect to its value as an educational tool on the Mayan history, religion and culture.

From the Paper
" J. Eric Thompson helped to shape the existing vision of the ancient Maya. In his book, "Maya History and Religion," Thompson pulled together and combined all the different elements from the researchers that had come before him. He studied the contemporary Maya, their folklore, religion, languages, and lifestyle. To this modern study, Thompson added the information he gleaned from the records of the colonial period, the archeological artifacts that had been previously uncovered, and the artifacts of sites he personally excavated. With this combined information he was able to extend and further clarify the Maya culture. Thompson then took this contemporary view and transposed it back in time to create a picture of the Classic and Post-Classic Maya civilization..."

Tags:ancient, hieroglyphic, popol, thompson, mayan, religion, history

Abstract
This paper examines and refers to one of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu's Turkish letters as a primary document. Remarks on women's writing and history, the tendency to view women's contributions according to feminist analysis is also considered. The paper further notes that as Wortley Montagu was a member of the British aristocracy, her impressions of the Sultana may have been different if penned by a member of the upper middle classes.

From the Paper
"Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (1689-1762) was born a daughter of Evelyn Pierrepont, 5th Earl of Kingston-upon-Hull, later the Marquess of Dorchester, and Lady Mary Fielding who died a few years later. In 1712, she eloped with Edward Wortley Montagu and lived quietly in the country till he became the MP for Westminster in 1715 and Lord Commissioner of the Treasury, Lady Mary joining her husband in London where her attractiveness and wit soon made her popular at court. When her husband was appointed ambassador to Istanbul in 1716, she soon joined him, traveling via Vienna..."

Tags:wortley montagu, istanbul, women's history

Abstract
This paper ponders the argument that the secondary characteristics of a historian has more impact on his or her writing, than gender alone. The writer contends that these secondary characteristics, such as race, socio-economic status, religious and political affiliations are what determine a writer's personal beliefs and biases. This paper explores the contributions of Sarah Bolton, one of America's leading feminist historians, who brought women in history to the forefront. Bolton's writings of history openly advocated the role of women in history and the change in social norms. The writer of this paper contends and explains that historians generally have agendas and that their writings are used to further these agendas. The writer also asserts that if history is written only by men, it is logical to assume that women's contributions to historical events will be lacking. The same holds true for history written by only one particular race.

From the Paper
"Take, for example, the different perspectives that could be taken by two writers, both women, about women being granted access to higher education in the 20th Century. The first woman writer is a member of the middle-class, and she and her husband both have to work in order to keep their family in the middle class. That historian may begin her history with women getting equal access to higher education, which led to more women entering the workforce in higher-paying jobs. In addition, that historian could accurately show that, traditionally, as women have entered an occupation, it has become devalued by society, and the members of the occupation have then suffered a relative decline in pay. As a result, the historian could conclude that women's access to higher education has led to a society of families that cannot maintain a middle-class lifestyle without two incomes."

Tags:history, literature, gender, bias, feminism, women, race

Abstract
The paper discusses the conception of 'new history" or 'history from below' and states that it has its foundations in a wide range of connected disciplines and contemporary theoretical trajectories and stances. The paper comments that the foundation of 'history from below' lies in the questioning of the hegemony of old and more elitist views of history and the context of historical reality The paper concludes that the writing of 'history from below' provides a much-needed and important part of historical research and discourse in contemporary scholarship.

Outline:
Introduction and Overview
British Multiculturalism
Conclusion

From the Paper
" In conclusion it should be noted that the "new history" and the stance that takes its point of departure from 'below" in Britain owes much to the earlier Marxist historians. These historians are in fact seen as the "progenitors" of contemporary "history from below." (Kaye 182) Given this legacy in the British context it is not surprising that much of the historical research has been focused on the marginalized and disenfranchised cultures and sections of the population.
"For example there has been a great deal of research on the Asian and Pakistan immigration to the country. After the Second World War there was a large scale immigration of Muslims from various counties including North Africa to Britain. The central reason for this was the need in Britain for cheap industrial labor and they "...turned towards their former colonies in South Asia and North Africa to fill labour shortages... (What perspectives for Islam and Muslims in Europe?) Research into this area has produced numerous studies dealing with the prejudice and the alienation that these immigrants experienced. This type of research clearly shows the link and the connection between 'history from below' and multiculturalism and also suggests that these two concepts are inextricably intertwinwed in this new approach to history. While there are many detractors and critics of this new historical approach, there are also many who see 'new history' as advancing the aims of the discipline."

Tags:history, culture, asian, immigration, former, colonies

Abstract
This paper brings together quotations from a number of leading historians, as well as mentioning the fact that the Bible is replete with history, and the Greeks were writing history from the dawn of recorded history. The paper draws from quotations ranging from the supportive to the cynical, but notably does include Santayana's famous quip that those who do not learn from history are doomed to repeat it.

From the Paper
"The American Heritage Dictionary defines "history" as "the branch of knowledge that records and analyzes past events." Very early, people wrote history. The Bible includes a great deal of history about the early Jewish people, their wars, their leaders, and their customs and culture. Homer's Iliad is part of a cycle of tales telling the history of the Trojan War. (Lattimore) In the golden age of Greek civilization, men turned specifically to recording and analyzing their past. One of these, Polybius, explained the task of the historian: That historians should give their own country a break, I grant you; but..."

Tags:history, historioraphy, livy

Abstract
This paper examines the idea of justification for the notion that military history may in fact be a genre of the discipline of history in its own right. The author finds that there is certainly a lexicon of expressions, terminology and acronyms unique to its study and writing. He sees that military history is unique on many levels, and there are some curious aspects and juxtapositions within the genre that seem to defy the rules of historical scholarship that are applied elsewhere within the history discipline. It is a genre that seems to cross historiographical boundaries and be bound only to its own set of rules and regulations.

From the Paper
"There is also some level of expected knowledge in much of it, for instance a given familiarity of the grand naval strategy ideas of Alfred Thayer Mahan and Sir Julian Corbett in works of naval history. Overall it also seems expected that one will have read and digested Von Clausewitz (and to have had curiosity to reach back further and read Jomini) as a prelude to any military history written after the 1850s. There certainly seems to be some higher levels of "given" knowledge than in other sub-disciplines of history. There is also perhaps another perception - that much of what is written as military history is simply categorizing under accepted and rigid categories of the genre. A perception that analysis only goes as deep as the last great analysis of a particular topic. Yet that may also be true of many other forms of writing history, genres of history and, indeed other disciplines as well. It is perhaps because military activities are some of the most meticulously documented events that are at the same time bound up in human contradiction that makes this so."

Tags:civil, gurkhas, history, marxist, postmodernism, war, whig

Abstract
Statues and monuments to great leaders of the past are paid for and maintained by states at a great cost because they are often necessary to justify the legitimacy of the state. In this context, as this essay will argue, our understanding of the past is shaped by the writing of history as "national" history.

Tags:constructing, national, history